



/ 



,7 




LP 621 

7 

U6 
1897 



UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 

RS IV AND V FROM RP^POKT OF COMMIS8IONEK OF EDUCATION 

~ For 1895-96. ' 



EDUCATION 



IN 



CENTRAL EUROPE. 



GOVERNMENT PRINTING gJF^V,V:,. 
18 9 7. 



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\i, ^ .IE>uT<2.Q.\J ol eaocoJ' 



UNITED STATES BUREAU OF EDUCATION. 

CHAPTERS IV AND V FROM REPORT OF COMMISSIONER OF EDUCATION 

For 1895-»«. 



EDUCATION 



IN 



CENTRAL EL^ROPE. 



WASHII^GTON: 

GOVERNMENT PRINTING OPFTOK. 

1897. 



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CHAPTER IV. 
EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 



Articles on education in central Europe puhlished in previous reports. 



2 

3 

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Title of article. 



Comparison of the schools of Germany, France, and the United States, with dia- 
grams 

Courses of study in graphic representation 

School population of the civilized world. Charts 

Blrd's-e^ e view of the schools in central Europe 

Middle and intermediate schools in Prussia 

Promoting public play of schoolchildren 

Education of neglected and depraved children 

Juvenile wage workers 

The schools of the Kingdom of Saxony 

Economic development of Saxony 

School gardens in GJermany and "Austria . 

School jjopulatiou in the civilized woild. Charts 

The December conference on secondary schools 

Brief view of the schools of Austria-Hungary 

Brief statement of the school system in Prussia 

Proportion of population in elementary, secondary, and higher institutions 

Iiidu.strial and technical education in central Europe 

Statistical summary of school population, teachers, and expenditures for schools 
in the civilized world 

Legal education in Eurojie and America 

Public kindergartens in European and American States 

The training of teachers in Germany, Austria, and Switzerland 

The Swiss school system.'. .' 

School museums and educational exhibitions 

German universities, history and present status 

Schools for recruiting the civil service in France and Prussia 

Eecent developments in the teaching of geography 

The schools of Bavaria 

Child study and experimental psychology, with bibliography 

Bibliography of Herbartianism -' 

German criticism of American education 

Criticism of educational exhibitions 

German view of American technological schools 

Statistical table of elementary instruction in foreign countries 

Pesults of Prussian common-school statistics discussed , 

Common-school teachers of Prussia 

Develoi)ment of the common-school system of Berlin 

Attendance in secondary schools for boys in Germany 

Courses of study in history found in vogue in Europe 

Bibliography of the history of education 

Statistics of university li braries in Europe 

German bibliography of arithmetic 

The new education in Germany 

Is German pedagogy in a state of decomposition ? 

Supplementary and industrial schools in Germany 

Ungraded schools in Germany 

German opinions on monitorial instruction 

Comparative review of courses of study in sixteen German cities 

Normal schools in Switzerland 

Mental fatigue in school 

National features of female education 

Public instruction in the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg 

Pensions for teachers 

The present report contains the following articles: 

Public industrial education in Berlin 

Salaries of elementary teachers in Germany . . _ 

Salaries of elementary teachers in Austria 

Statistics of higher education in central Europe 

Foreigners in central European iini versifies 

Music in German schools 

Reform schools in the Grand Duchy of Baden . 

Mental fatigue in school 

ED 96 5* 



''or* ip^g 



1888-89 

18W8-89 

1888-89 

1889-90 

1889-90 

1889-90 

1889-90 

1889-90 

1889-90 

1889-90 ! 

1880-90 

1889-90 

1889-90 

1889-90 

1889-90 

1890-91 

1800-91 
1890-91 
1890-91 
1891-92 
1891-92 
1891-92 
1891-92 
1891-92 
1892-93 
1892-93 
1892-93 
1892-93 
1892-93 
1892-93 
1892-93 
1892-93 
1893-94 
1893-94 
1893-94 
1893-94 
1893-94 
1893-94 
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1893-94 
1894-95 
1894-95 
1894-95 
1894-95 
1894-95 
1894^95 
1894-95 
1894-95 
1894-95 
1894-95 
1894-95 

1895-96 
1895-96 
1895-96 
1895-96 
1895-96 
1895-96 
1895-96 
1895-96 

137^ 



138 EDUCATION EEPOET, 1895-96. 

Public Industrial Education in Berlin. 

When the old Trade Institute of tbe city of Berlin was changed into 
an industrial academy, and later was transformed into what is now 
known as the Polytechuicum of Charlotteuburg, there became api^arent 
a gaj) between the i^ublic elementary school work and the technological 
education, as well as a gap between school and practical life. It has 
always been well understood in Germany, that the education supx)orted 
by the State and general taxation must not be si^ecial education, but 
aim at general culture. In other words, i)ublic education can not i)re- 
pare for any particidar profession, vocation, or occupation ; it is intended 
to lay the foundation for a general culture desirable for all citizens of 
the State. While thus any special i)reparation for the trades, or for 
commerce, or for the higher professions is excluded from institutions 
that offer education gratuitously, ou the other hand there has arisen a 
difficulty which makes the establishment of trade and industrial schools 
a necessity. The labor unions, prompted by self-interest, frequently 
prohil)it their members from engaging apprentices; naturally then their 
number is very small, hence very few chances are offered for the learn- 
ing of trades. The great extension of mechanical contrivances and 
machines of all kinds has liberated much human power that was for- 
merly engaged in mere mechanical performances. Hence the labor of 
the hand has become much more complicated, much more difficult to 
learn, and, therefore, also needs much more careful study and exercise. 
All these causes combine to necessitate the establishment of a number 
of special schools, and the city government of Berlin, fully aware of the 
changed conditions of labor, liberally provided for them. But it must 
be well understood that all the trade schools and institutions for the 
I)reparation of skilled laborers in Germany have this one characteristic 
feature, to wit, that they bestow less attention upon manual labor and 
more to the underlying principles and the knowledge skilled labor pre- 
supposes. This is the reason why drawing, mathematics, the sciences 
of physics and chemistry, and the like are taught in trade schools. 
The shop work, so often spoken of, and held up as models of imitation 
in this country, is comparatively very limited and confines itself to 
mere application of iirinciples learned during lessons. It seems as 
though these German trade schools carefully abstain from coming into 
competition with the labor market. 

A recent report of the superintendent of x^nblic schools in Berlin, 
privy councillor. Dr. Bertram, states that the sum of 542,4:45 marks was 
spent in the year 1895. Of this sum 80,159 marks were contributed by 
the State of Prussia; 325,401 marks by the community; 16,565 marks 
by trade unions, societies, mercantile firms, etc., and the board of trade 
contributed 4,000 marks; while 110,320 marks, or about one-fifth of the 
sum total, were paid in the form of tuition fees. To this sum total of 
542,445 marks ($129,102) must be added various donations in form of 



EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 139 

tools and other things, such as material, for Avliich no correct estimate 
can be made. While this money is spent entirely in the interest of 
schools preparing for skilled labor, there must be mentioned also the 
fact that 337,500 marks ($80,339) is expended by the city for so-called 
"■ continuation or supplementary schools," in which industrial education 
is a very essential feature. These latter-named schools offer i^ost- 
gradaate instruction to boys and girls who have gone through the 
eight years' course of the elementary school. Most of these supple- 
mentary schools offer gratuitous instruction, but not all.^ Though 
Berlin is a metropolis of large size, it seems remarkable that it should 
pay about $200,000 per year for purely industrial education. 

How this sum is distributed, and for what purposes it is used, can 
be seen from the following statements taken from Dr. Bertram's report. 
Tlie great variety of trade institutions and their scope appear to cover 
up the fundamental idea, but careful observation reveals it. It is this: 
The city authorities desire to give young men of aspiration who are 
desirous of gaining knowledge, as well as persons of more advanced 
age, opportunities for the development of their special talents and 
skill that can not, in the nature of the case, be found in the workshop 
or the factory. 

It is the desire of all concerned in this department of education that 
the student should not engage in actual practical work for paj^, and to 
put the instruction in close contact with the circumstances or occupa- 
tions of the learners. Moreover, and this apj^ears to ns here in Amer- 
ica the more important and nobler object of the schools, the entire 
range of instruction in these trade and industrial schools tends to 
unify several branches of labor and to prevent too much specialization. 
Apprentices and young beginners are very apt in our modern time of 
application of machines to learn to work mechanically. Specialization 
is going so far that the workman is often degraded to an assistant of 
the machine, instead of the machine being his assistant. A few grips, 
a few touches, a few motions, are all the man has to do, and he loses 
bis respect for the dignity of labor and can not see all the bearings of 
a single trade. These industrial schools lift the young man to a higher 
standpoint, from which he can view all the bearings of his trade and its 
organic combination with other trades. 

In accordance with this central idea the choice of courses of instruc- 
tion is left free to the student, and a systematic, rigid course of study is 
introduced only in cases where experience has proven incontestably in 
certain trades that such a course is profitable. The authorities also 
desire to interest and solicit the active sympathy of trades unions, 
societies, and experts, by offering for every trade that kind of instruc- 
tion which is apt to supplement its practical application by theory. The 
eminent success of the royal art schools and industrial museums is 
utilized by employing the graduates of these institutions as teachers in 



' Compare article on such schools in last years annual report. 



140 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 

the trade schools, for it is argued that a teacher should know very much 
more thau he is to teach. Hence mere artisans can not be teachers in 
Berlin trade schools. The authorities insist upon their being graduates 
of schools of design and other art schools. The system of industrial 
education of Berlin, it is admitted, is not entirely developed, and some 
of the schools belonging to the system are still in their infancy; but in 
the main features the course of education for young tradesmen and 
skilled artisans is designed to be as follows: 

First, it must be remarked that the course of education sketched in 
the following lines is designed for boys, because trades and industrial 
fields in Germany are, as a rule, not crowded with women. Every boy, 
then, may attend a public elementary school, the so-called i^eople's 
school, which ofi'er» instruction gratuitously. If he and his parents 
conclude to aim at a higher education than the elementary schools ofler, 
he may enter one of the twelve higher burger schools in Berlin, called 
Eealschulen, which are so organized that a boy coming from the elemen- 
tarj' schools at the age of 12 years may at once enter the fourth grade, 
above which instruction in foreign languages begins. These schools 
admit pupils at 10 years of age, but in the first two years the chief 
work consists of language (mother tongue), history, a little of the science 
of physics, and geometry. These high schools are of course without 
Latin. The graduates of these institutions receive the privilege of only 
one year's army service. 

Boys of the elementary school who enter these higher schools at the 
age of 12, and cannot pay for their tuition, receive their instruction 
gratuitously. Boys Avho at the age of 14 leave the elementary school 
or are dropped out of the Eealschulen owing to poverty, find oppor- 
tunity for continuing their studies in the evening or on Sundaj^s in so- 
called supplementary or continuation schools. Here the mother tongue, 
arithmetic, geometry, phj^sics, and some other branches are taught 
gratuitously. Some of these continuation schools also teach higher 
branches, such as foreign languages and double-entry bookkeeping; for 
these higher branches a small tuition fee is to be paid. 

And now we come to the purely industrial institutions : (1) The two 
trade schools of the city. The older of the two began in October, 1880. 
It was called into existence by the city authorities with the active 
cooperation of the State. From the moment that the new principal, 
Professor Jessen, was called from Hamburg to take charge of this first 
trade school in Berlin the latter has increased in extent and importance 
beyond everything that even the most extravagant expectations could 
have imagined — enrolling 2,193 students in 1894-95. The other school is 
almost a copy of the first, following in all essentials the plan evolved 
by experience in the first trade school. Professor Bertram describes it 
as follows : 

The original plan intended to give persons beyond the age of compulsory educa- 
tion, and who have completed the work of the elementary school, instruction in 
industrial drawing and modeling, in arithmetic; mechanics and physics, and, lastly, 



EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 141 

ill bookkeei)iug aiul arithmetic. The school was iuteuded to accommodato 600 stu- 
dents; the expenditure, iisido from the tuition fee charged, was estimated at 30,000 
marks per annum, of which the State intended to pay one-half. At present (in l'S95) 
the State pays 20,000 marks and the city 100,000 marks. The school fully lives up 
to th« original plan, but it has extended its field of usefulness so much that it is a 
source of pride to the industrial world of the German Empire. To prove this it may 
be mentioned that in the courses for mechanical drawing lb prepares its students for 
the work of a great number of trades, such as watchmakers, stone masons, and the 
like. In day classes it prepares fresco painters. Students of these classes come 
only in winter, and thej- come to Berlin for this jiarticular purpose from all over 
the Empire. Similar classes prepare cabinetmakers, wood cugravers, etc. The. 
school has lately opened day classes for mechanical engineers, and likewise for 
electro-technical work. Among the students there are found masters, journeymen, 
laborers, drawing teachers, side by side with students who are just beginning to 
prepare themselves for a trade. 

This Berlin Trade School is a nursery of s^jecial schools, the first beginnings of 
which are found within its walls ; thus, for instance, we find the typographical school 
started here; but, above all, it is a nursery of modern methods of teaching. This, 
indeed, is its most characteristic feature, and we may describe it by stating it to be 
an experimental station for teaching trades. 

lu oixler to relieve the school of its overcrowded classes a second 
trade school was established in October, 1S92. This second school had 
already in 1895 a total of 850 students. This school follows the first 
in all essentials except in physics, which science is excluded owing to 
want of suitable rooms; instead of that it has a day class for painters, 
and has lately opened also a class for artistic metal and brazier work. 
Drawing of metal and conventionalized floral designs is a peculiar fea- 
ture of this school. 

The builders' school, representing all the trades engaged in the erec- 
tion of buildings, is formed according to the model prescribed by the 
Prussian State authorities, and it is, like the two trade schools, sup- 
ported by the State and the community jointly. It has 381 students 
in four succeeding yearly classes. 

The weaving school in Berlin was formerly intended only as a special 
school for apprentices and journeymen in the textile industry, in order 
to give them an oi^portunity to go from one deiiartment to another 
without going through the otherwise necessary period of apprentice- 
ship. But the school has greatly extended its usefulness by attemx)ting 
to represent, and, as it were, foreshadow, the frequently changing fash- 
ions in the branch of textile industry. This school, like all other trade 
and industrial schools in Berlin, constantly keeps this leading idea in 
miud, namely, every workman .should know more, and should be able 
to do more, than one thing. It is not only desirable but in the nature 
of the case necessary for him to know many branches of his trade. If 
he be a weaver in silk he should know the tricks of the trade of the 
linen weaver, or the cotton weaver, or the woolen weaver j and the same 
holds good in other cases. The instruction extends over hand looms, 
mechanical looms, and work iu passementerie. The possibility of offer- 
ing to Sunday and evening school students so fine an equipment iu 



142 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 

apparatus and ])ieaiis of iustructiou dates from the year 1889, when, 
in addition to these courses, day classes were opened which, according 
to the present terminology, are called the higher weaving school. The 
two divisions are supplemented by an evening school for merchants of 
the textile branch; and lately the beginning of a school for dyers has 
been made. The organization of all Prussian weaving schools is occu- 
pying the secretary of the de^jartment of commerce and industry, and 
his object is to make them more uniform than they arc at present. 
Tuition fees are not required of api^rentices and workmen in the textile 
industry. Two other institutions must be mentioned which are prob- 
ably characteristic of the city of Berlin. They are the cabinetmakei"'s 
school and what is known as the Industrial Hall. 

In the continuation of supplementary schools it was noticed that 
mechanical drawing engaged the attention of a large number of young 
people in preparation for certain branches of instruction closely allied 
with and forming the basis of trade and industrial education. Indeed, 
this special kind of drawing, the so-called drawing of working models, 
seems to be the backbone of instruction offered in the continuation 
schools. The further this system of schools developed, and the more 
the number of pupils increased, the more desirable became professional 
supervision and technical instruction in the industrial features of draw- 
ing; and to meet this demand it was deemed appropriate to establish 
what is known as the Industrial Hall. The courses of technical draw- 
ing arranged for locksmiths and artistic metal workers, machine build- 
ers, tinsmiths, instrument makers, etc., remained where they had been 
given, but in the Central Industrial Hall all branches of industry were 
united in one and taught by a specially and well-qualified group of 
teachers. At the head of this institution was placed a very skillful 
man who had, through long years of experience in the trades school, 
proved to be particularly well fitted for this position. He is the super- 
visor of technical mechanical drawing courses; he selects proper teach- 
ers and determines the method and means of instruction, so that now 
the city authority has some guaranty that the various industrial courses 
are appropriately prepared for by the instruction given in drawing. 
The Industrial Hall has ten subdepartments distributed over the vari- 
ous parts of the city. This is to enable the students in all parts of the 
city to participate in the instruction, so that everyone finds instruc- 
tion near his home. These courses are offered in the evening and on 
Sundays. The drawing does not confine itself to technical and pro- 
fessional drawing only, but includes projective drawing and mechanics. 
Tlic authorities entertain the hope that this instruction in drawing 
which centers in the Industrial Hall, and which was participated in 
during the winter of 1895 by 1,400 students, may in future time change 
into a day school for machine builders. 

A similar development has been noticed in the school of cabinet- 
makers. Cabinetmakers have great need for technical drawing, and 



EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 143 

especially iu designing now models; lience it was desirable to establisli 
proper supervisors, so tliat the various courses offered in the city might 
be fostered and cared for uniformly. The city of Berlin has now a 
large number of drawing courses for cabinetmakers, altogether seven 
different departments in varions parts of the city. The next stej) con- 
templated is to combine a school for tnrners with the cabinetmakers' 
school. The Turners' Union has expressed the desire that such a school 
be established, and it is the intention to connect it with an established 
school, especiallj' since the two trades of cabinetmaking and turning 
are so closely allied. Woodcarving is carefully attended to m the 
cabinetmakers' school, and not having the desired space, some of the 
apprentices of this school have occupied the upper halls of common 
schools, winch, of course, in the nature of the case, can be utilized only 
in the evening. It may be of interest to remark that a successful trial 
has been made to change this cabinetmakers' school into a day school, 
for many of the api^rentices and sons of masters in that trade have 
been able to secure a release from work in their shops in order to attend 
the school for a certain nnmber of days a week. But in all parts of 
the school, whether in the central school for cabinetmakers or in the 
various branch schools, it is drawing which forms the chief branch and 
mainstay of the conrse of instruction. 

Aside from the schools thus far mentioned, Berlin has 15 other special 
schools for trades, namely, for masons and carpenters, for painters, 
chimney sweeps, barbers, wheelwrights, glaziers, shoemakers, black- 
smiths, paper hangers and decorators, basket braiders, bookbinders, 
gardeners, printers, and tailors. The potters also have a school, but 
that is supported by the city only in so far as the city allows the use 
of certain available schoolrooms for its use. It is confidently hoped 
that this school will soon enter into closer relations with the city 
government. 

Most of these schools have originated in trades unions, or, if not that, 
they have been suggested and aided by the unions. In most of them 
drawing is greatly fostered, although some of them represent trades in 
which drawing is not essential, but which require only manual dex- 
terity; thus, for instance, the barbers and hairdressers, whose trade 
is very extensive in the city of Berlin, and whose school is very numer- 
ously attended. Wheelwrights began with a small workshop for pupils. 
The bookbinders have gone much further, using rooms which were 
specially designed and erected for them. The same may be said of the 
basket braiders' school. For such trades as bookbinding, basket braid- 
ing, and the like the necessity of maintaining a practice workshop is 
very urgent. In the bookbinders' trade the division of labor has pro- 
gressed to such an extent that a number of apprentices can practice 
through their apprenticeship without ever having completely seen how 
a book is bound. This school shows all the various branches of the 
trade and enables the student to try his hand at all of them, so that 



14-1 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 

wlieu be cbiiiiges from one worksliop to auotber iu after life lie may be 
able to change his occupation as necessity or the vicissitudes of life 
demand. There is scarcely a specialty in the trade that is not carefully 
and judiciously represented in the bookbinders' school. 

Similar things may be said regarding the basket braiders. They 
have so-called common beaten work as well as fine artistic work; they 
also manufacture wicker and rattan furniture. Each master of a shop 
usually has a specialty, and hence apprentices in his shop would learn 
only that specialty; but in a braiders' school he learns all the many 
features of the trade. Other schools, like those of paper hangers and 
decorators, shoemakers, and tailors, show certain features of the trade 
and certain devices not commonly taught to apprentices in workshops* 
Thus, for instance, the students of tailoring and shoemaking are taught 
to use the cutting machine and to calculate mathematically the size 
of every part of the garment, one part being given. The authorities of 
Berlin noticed with satisfaction that the courses in garment cutting 
were attended by masters as well as by apprentices and journeymen. 

Tiie house decorators' school in Berlin is in a very prosperous con- 
dition, partly owing to the flourishing trade of paper hangers and fresco 
painters. Berlin since 1870 has grown more rapidly than many Ameri- 
can cities. Much building and remodeling of houses is going on, and 
the refined taste of the inhabitants of the capital seems to require the 
art of decorators more generally. Other trade schools need not be 
described; a mere mention will suffice. The gardeners' school draws 
into its influence young gardeners from far and near. They chiefly 
study botany and drawing, make excursions witli their teachers, and 
practice surveying and leveling, drainage, and other practical parts of 
landscape gardening. 

Dr. Bertram, being asked, "What is the result of these various trade 
schools?" says: 

I cau not as yet give utterance to a definite opinion concerning the results, because 
this extensive system of industrial education has not existed long enough to have 
developed fruit; but I may confidently state, without apprehension of saying too 
much, that with the ojiportunities that were offered the eagerness to learn increased 
extraordinarily, which is a most hopeful indication of wholesome influence. I 
observe, secondly, that the opposition against trade schools, which used to be very 
strong among the masters, has almost died out, and that, thirdly, the usefulness of 
apprentices in workshops and factories is being recognized all over the city, because 
they can apply in actual work that which they learn theoretically in school. 

The real value of a system of schools can not be estimated until its 
graduates have had time to prove to the world what they have learned, 
and how successfully they can apply their knowledge. That requires 
more time than many impatient people will concede. 

The authorities in Berlin entertain the hope that the further devel- 
opment of this system of trade schools will aid the trades in one 
particular, to wit: The school teaches the construction and use of 
machines used in trades, and acquaints the student with various 



EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 



145 



motors, wliicli will gradually lead to an extension of the tradesman's 
business. Tlie present extensive system of electrical motors enables 
a poor man to use mechanical power in his shop, and thus to compete 
with his wealthy rival. A connection between workshop and factory 
is established or made possible, since the factory owner will, it is 
evident, i)refer men who have learned in actual contact with machines 
how to perform skillful manipulations. And whenever new inventions 
change the aspect of au}^ trade, the men skilled in numerous phases of 
their work are apt to find occasion for their talents, while those who 
only understand the mechanical part are easily stranded. 

A summary of statistics of the trade schools in Berlin is here 
appended : 

Summary of statistics in 1S94-D5. 



Schools. 



First City Trade Scliool. . . 
Second City Trade School . 

City Builders' ScliooI 

City Weavers' School 

Ceiiiral Industrial Hall . . . 
School for— 

Cabiuetmakers 

Bricklayers 

Painters 

Chin)noy sweeps 

Barbers 

Wheelwrights 

Glaziers 

Paperhangers 

Shoemakers 

Blacksniiths 

Braiders 

Bookbinders 

Gardeners 

Printers 

Tnilors 

Saddlers 



Total 

Extraordinary expenses 

Grand total 

Amount spent for industrial education in continuation schools- 



Grand total 



Number 
of teach- 
ers. 



336 



Number 
of stu- 
dents. 



Expend- 
itures. 



2,193 
908 
881 
363 

1,235 

755 
233 
388 
120 
492 

95 

8S 
250 
228 
168 

27 
111 

98 
372 
330 
162 



8, 992 



$32, 557 
14, 342 
21, 395 
12, 006 
10, 202 

4,504 
2, 222 

a! 155 

372 

1,869 

883 

373 

2 702 

1, 783 

522 

505 

1,071 

287 

1, 7C7 

723 

891 



llu, i;J2 
15, 970 



129, 102 
80, 339 



In connection with the foregoing statement of what is done for indus- 
trial education in the city of Berlin, it is interesting to note an Ameri- 
can opinion of industrial education in Germany, and its effect upon the 
success of that Empire in commerce and various domains of industry. 
The following quotation is an editorial article in the Scientific Ameri-- 
can (September 26, 1896), which deserves great credit for shrewd obser- 
vation and candid statement. The article is headed " The secrets of 
Germany's industrial success." 

Perhaps the most notable fact in the industrial world just now is the commanding 
position which is being won by the German manufacturers and the rapid encroach- 
ments which they are making upon the foreign trade of other nations, and particu- 
larly upon that of Great Britain. In taking note of this development we must 
remember that it is nothing new— that it is not the result of a sudden outburst of 



146 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 

energy. It is merely tlio larger clcvelopment, tlio coming of age, of a system whicli 
lias been steadily at work in Germany for many years. Her industrial triumnh, 
■wliicli has come as a surprise to the world at large, and with a rude awakening 
shock to Great Britain in particular, is no surjiriso to the German people themselves. 
In school and college, in workshop and factory, by carefully planned organizations 
at homo and abroad, they have sot in motion a system of industrial forces which are 
now working out the desired results with mechanical regularity and i)recisiou. 

The German mind is essentially scientific and methodical. It was these qualities 
that contributed largely to the signal triumph of the German arms in the memora- 
ble war of 1870. During the quarter of a century that has intervened since the close 
of the struggle and the consolidation of the Empire, Germany has been applying the 
same scicntiSc methods to the arts of jieace; and with such success that it begins to 
look as though her industrial armies were going to occupy the broad fields of inter- 
national commerce with the same resistless energy with which her battalions 
marched from Saarbriick to Sedan a quarter of a century ago. 

Germauy owes her industrial success to her system of scieutiiic training in schools 
and colleges, to the close fellowship which exists between her factories and her 
schools, and to her elaborate organizations for the control and development of com- 
merce. 

That the scientific course in Gorman schools was thorough and effective has always 
been well understood; but it has been reserved for a private letter written by Pro- 
fessor Ostwald, the distinguished German chemist, to his English friend, Professor 
Ramsay, to open the eyes of the world, and iiarticularly of the English people, who 
are most nearly aifected, to the practical use to which the scientific researches of 
their specialists are put by the German xieople. It appears from this letter that 
there is a close alliance between the German manufacturers and the universities and 
high-grade technical schools. In the chemical industry, for instance, it seems that 
splendid inducements are offered to the graduates of technical colleges to eater the 
laboratories which form part of the equipment of the factories. These young men 
are engaged, not for the executive work of the establishment, but for purely esperi- 
meutal work in the laboratory. They form a brigade of skilled inventors, who 
devote themselves to the discovery of improved processes and methods of manu- 
facture 

Speaking of this system, Professor Ostvrald says : 

"The research laboratory in such a Avork is only diffeient from one in a university 
by its being more splendidly and sumptuously fitted than the latter. I have heard 
from the business managers of such works that they have not unfrequently men Avho 
have w&rked for four years without practical success; but if they know them to 
possess ability, they keei) them notwithstanding, and in most cases with ultimate 
success sufficient to jiay the expenses of the former resultless years." 

When we bear iu mind that ''tliei'e are often more than one hundred Ph. D.'s in a 
single manufactory," and that this little array of qualified scientists is occupied 
solely in "making inventions," we begin to understand why it is that Germany is 
already preeminent in certain markets of the world, and is likely to become so in 
others before long. Invention is no longer left to the unaided efforts of the well- 
meaning but often uniustructed individual. In the special laboratory there will be 
no long hours of fruitless search for au object whoso supposed existence is based 
upon ignorance of the first princijiles of physics or mechanics. In this admirable 
combination of the skilled theorist and the trained mechanic there is little left to 
chance, and the development of an art is carried on by the sure and logical process 
of experiment, invention, and design. 

Of scarcely less importance in German industrial economy is her elaborate system 
for the fostering and extension of trade. This includes the founding, in certain 
industrial centers, of chambers of commerce. These institutions are intended to deal 
with questions of home and foreign trade in the broadest i)ossibie manner. 



EDUCATION m CENTRAL EUROPE. 147 

"There is no question coiinected \vitli tbedcvelopnieiit of trade interests, of mauu- 
factnres, credit capacity of foreign countries, advantages to be obtained by treaty 
stipulations, injuries resulting from measures adopted by other nations in restraint 
of trade, Ayhich is not thoroughly discussed and carefully considered by the many 
German chambers of commerce scattered over the country. These bodies report to 
thomlnisterof commerce with regard to the influence and bearing of all such matters, 
as they are connected ^vith the commercial interests of the various localities; and by 
petition or otherwise they often secure action through their minister and the minis- 
ter of foreign affairs -which is of great advantage to them." 

As the necessary counterpart of this organization at home, the Germans are about 
to establish a system of commercial attaches, whoso agents shall be specially trained 
for the service and shall form a recognized part of the national representation in 
foreign countries. The work of the attache will be similar to that which is now 
embodied by our own consuls in their ''consular reports," many of which, be it said, 
are admirable documents and worthy of a wider circulation. Ho will furnish to the 
homo government a statement in detail of the particular commodities which are 
required in his district, and will keep it informed of the volume and nature of the 
trade done there by competitors ; and, indeed, ho Avill rei^ort any facts which might 
bo of service for disseminatioji among the various local boards of trade above men- 
tioned. 

Visitors to the Columbian Exposition at Chicago will remember the truly magnifi- 
cent display that was made by Germany, and particularly the collection which 
figured so prominently in the Liberal Arts Building. It was a special effort, care- 
fully planned and effectively carried out, and German foreign trade is feeling the 
stimulus of that costly disjilay at the present moment. 

Our brief consideration of this subject suggests that, while it more immediately 
concerns the commercial supremacy of Great Britain, it has also a practical interest 
for the United States. In our future commercial development and expansion we 
shall certainly enter into a most active competition with the two nations above 
mentioned. It is a question which we shall do well to ask ourselves, whether our 
native inventiveness and mechanical skill should not be stimulated and rendered 
more efficient by such a triple alliance of s"cience, industry, and organization as is 
now carrying Germany to the front by leaps and bounds. 



Salaries of Teachers in the People's Schools in Ger3iany. 

The question of raising tlie salaries of teacliei's has of late been a 
subject of discussion in legislative bodies of the various German 
States, especially in Prussia. A bill laid before the Prussian Diet 
during its session in 1896 regulates the salaries, but in every case it 
refers to the minimum beginner's salary, and leaves the adjustment of 
the maximum sum to the communities. The following tables, vith 
explanations, are gathered from an article by Kector J. Tews, of Berlin, 
who carefully compiles and critically analyzes the educational statis- 
tics of his native country from official nnd private sources. He says: 

In order to present the situation as it novr actually exists in Germany, it is neces- 
sary to bring together as many statements as possible. There are varied opinions 
as to what constitutes the proper pay for elementary school teachers. From some 
States it was impossible to obtain the statistics, namely, from Alsace-Lorraine, Meck- 
lenburg, Schaumburg-Lippe, and Waldeck. Little irregularities could not be 



148 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 

.ivoided ; tliey are explained in the text acconipauying the tables. It is qiiite aston- 
ishing to see how many teachers are paid minimum salaries. According to the tables 
from Wiirtemberg that refer to the year 1891-92, there were 3,406 teachers, of whom 
511 were marked as belonging to the eleventh year of service, yet these 511 were still 
drawing the minimum salary. Besides, Wiirtemberg had in the same year 1,280 
teachers not definitely employed who had been teaching between one and ten years. 
In Saxony, during the j'ear 1894, Mr. Rocke prepared a statement from which it is 
seen that among 8,239 teachers there were 1,902 definitely engaged and 336 assistants 
who were still drawing the lowest salary, which is equal to 28.3 per cent of the 
whole number of teachers in Saxony and 26 per cent of the assistants. The tables 
following on pages 153 to 155 are arranged according to the annual increases pre- 
scribed by law or governmental regulation. 

1. Only the minimum salaries, with regular increases owing to the age and length 
of service which are required by law, are recorded in this table. No voluntary 
addition to the salary voted for by communities has been considered. Though 
these cases are quite numerous, it did not seem to be correct to consider them, inas- 
much as it is the object to state the legal requirements only. 

2. Wherever in any State, as for instance in Hessia, Gotha, and Weimar, higher 
salaries are fixed by law for the cities and lower salaries for rural schools, the lower 
salaries have been inserted in the table in preference to the higher, the latter being 
in the minority. 

8. Where professional teachers, such as assistants, adjuncts, substitutes, etc., 
receive a salary fixed by law, these salaries have been recorded in the proper col- 
umn. Where promotion to a definite appointment is not regulated by law, the 
average provisional period is assumed. 

4. Where free fuel is granted in addition to the salary of teachers, 100 marks is 
added in the salary in the table, and 50 marks to that of assistants. This has been 
done with statements from Sondershausen and Liibeck, and also Saxony. For 
Hamburg a different figure had to be taken, namely, 150 marks for teachers and 50 
marks for assistants, since these are the actual sums paid. 

5. Wherever the teacher acts as organist or sexton and receives extra pay for such 
work, the pay is not mentioned in the tables, because, practically, it has nothing to 
do with the actual school work and its remuneration. 

Special notes are made with reference to each separate State: 

Bavaria: This Kingdom has no maximum salary fixed by law. The law prescribes 
increases of 90 marks at intervals of five years. After forty years service the Bava- 
rian teachers draw 1,720 marks; after forty-five years, 1,810; after fifty years, 1,900 
marks; while the teachers in the Palatinate draw only 1,620, 1,710, and 1,800 marks, 
respectively. This necessitated a double entry in the table for Bavaria. 

In Wiirtemberg the beginners in the prolession draw 620 marks per annum dur- 
ing the first five years, and 790 marks until they reach the tenth year. Aside from 
the salary, they are provided with a furnished room, fuel, and light. The compiler 
has estimated the cost of this at 70 marks, hence the figures in the column will be 
found to be 690 and 860, respectively. Definitely appointed teachers are allowed 
by law supplies to the amount of 70 marks. 

In Saxony the assistants are granted free fuel or a sum of 50 marks. Very few 
communities in Saxony have gone beyond the minimum salaries prescribed by law. 

In Baden the candidates, that is, the beginners, receive 800 marks, and after having 
passed their State examination the salary is increased to 900 marks. For older 
assistant teachers many communities pay as much as 1,100 marks, which is the begin- 
ning salaries of rectors or principals. Rent is calculated at 150 marks for such teach- 
ers. Principals in schools with four teachers receive 100 marks, and where the 
school has more than four teachers 200 marks, additional. If the teachers serve in 
supplementary schools and evening classes the work is paid for by the year, namely, 
100 marks. If he teaches gymnastics an additional 25 marks is paid. Since most 



EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 149 

teachers in smixll coniiiumitics act ;is organists, aud some as sextons, their income is 
increased to a much greater sum than is stated in the table. 

In Hessia a new hiw has been passed which will come into force April 1, 1897. 
Definite appointment of the teacher is calculated from the date of passing- the second 
State examination, while in otlicr States il^ is the first examination. 'Jliis examina- 
tion is usually passed at the expiration of two years after graduating- from the normal 
schools. In larger communities much higher salaries are x>iiid, but since it is the 
object to show the minimum salaries they are omitted from tlio table. 

Oldenburg : The teachers in Oldenburg are classed as head teachers and assistants. 
Head teachers are the principals of graded schools and the teachers of ungraded 
schools in the country ; all other teachers are called assistants. The minimum salary 
of a head teacher is 900 marks, but in the cities 180 to 300 marks are added. To the 
minimum (or "stock") salary are also added six increases at 75 marks each after 
five, ten, fifteen, twenty, twenty-five, and thirty years of service, counted frojm the 
definite appointment. The teachers are employed temporarily for nearly four years. 
There is a further classification of the assistants into those of the first and second 
class. This makes it difficult to calculate the salaries for insertion in the table. 
The increases are not in most cases regulated by law but depend upon the good will 
of the authorities in office. Hence the table contains statements for Oldenburg, 
with reference to the first ten years of service, that may not in every case be correct, 
but they are the result of careful computation. The higher salaries could not be 
stated with exactness either, since in most cases a local increase is voted which is 
rarely less than 300 marks. In graded schools the second teacher draws the salary 
of a head teacher. The principal receives an indemnity of 90 to 120 marks if his 
school, or rather his residence, is not provided with an extensive garden in which to 
raise vegetables and fruit. This indemnity for land is invariably inserted in the 
table and quoted at 90 marks. The Government of Oldenburg is at present engaged 
in preparing a bill to regulate the salaries of teachers. 

In Weimar there is a distinction made between rural districts and towns of the 
third, second, and first class. The minimum salary fixed for towns of the third class 
ranges between 860 and 1,710 marks, in towns of the second class between 890 and 
1,860 marks, and in towns of the first class between 920 and 2,010 marks; obtainable 
after twenty-seven years of service, counted from the day of graduation in the nor- 
mal school. There is a movement on foot in the duchy to. do away with the differ- 
ences and place the teachers all on the same level with those of towns of the first 
class. The teachers also claim remuneration for service in church, either as organist 
or sexton, or whatever other service the church insists upon. 

In Brunswick the city teachers have between 750 and 2,100 marks; besides that 
they enjoy free rent, which in the country is paid "in natura" and is estimated at 150 
marks, or an indemnity of 90 marks for the first five years, 120 marks for the second 
five years, 150 marks for the third five years, and 180 marks after the eighteenth 
year of service. 

In Anhalt the teachers are not paid extra for rent. Where there is a residence for 
the teacher connected with the schoolhouse, rent is deducted from his stock salary. 
If he draws less than 1,500 marks, the sum of 60 marks is deducted ; if he draws more 
than 1,500 marks, 90 marks is deducted for the use of tlie residence. In the table 
these sums are already deducted. There is a slight difference between the salaries 
paid in small cities and. in larger cities, but the teachers are endeavoring to equalize 
tlie salaries and the Government is willing to meet the teachers in this. 

In Gotha there is a higher scale of salaries for the three cities^ Gotha, Ohrdruf, 
and Waltershausen, than the table contains. In Coburg the scales for city teachers 
are considerably higher than those mentioned in the table. lu Meiningen the Gov- 
ernment gives the teachers an additional salary of from 100 to 200 marks and 200 
marks indemnity for rent. 

In Altenburg the rural teachers are classed with the teachers of towns of the third 



150 



EDUCATION EEPOKT, 1895-96. 



class, .and it is this miuiimim that is contained in tho table. Jn Reuss (senior line) 
the head teachers receive an additional salary of 69 marks for sniiervision of their 
schools, l)ut tho cities pay the salaries. 

In Schwarzburg-Soudershausen rent is not paid, hut fuel and light are allowed. 
These dilferences have been adjusted in the tables. 

Schaumburg-Lippe has not been inserted in tho table because there was found no 
basis of comparison between the teachers called head teachers and assistants and 
between teachers of the various classes of towns. It may be stated, however, that 
the salaries range between 850 and 1,200 marks, and increase at intervals of five yeara 
100 marks each time. Increases are calculated from the day of definite appointment, 
and church service is calculated at 300 marks per year. 

The salaries of rural teachers of the State of Hamburg are as follows: Assistants 
froui six to eight years receive between 800 and 1,000 marks, a furnished room, and 
50 marks for fuel. Among the definitely appointed teachers, the following categories 
are to be distinsjuished: 



TeacluTs in ungraded scliools with loss than 35 
pui)ils : 

Minin2um 

Maximum 

Teachers in ungraded schools -nith more than 35 
inipils: 

Minimum 

Maximum 

Head teacliers in graded schools: 

Minimum 

Maximum 



'Stock" 
salary. 



2Iarks. 
1,000 

1,200 



1,200 
1,500 



1,500 
2,000 



After 3 
years. 



Marks. 
1,100 
1,320 



1,320 
1,650 



1,650 
2,200 



After G 
years. 



Marls. 
1,200 

1,410 



1,440 
1,800 



1,800 
2,400 



After 9 
years. 



Maris. 
1, 300 
1,560 



1,560 
1,950 



1,950 
2,600 



After 12 
yeara. 



Marks. 
1,400 
1,680 



1,680 
2,100 



2, 100 
2,800 



To these sums must be added a fixed sum for rent for unmarried teachers, or a free 
dwelling, with garden and fuel, for married teachers. Where these can not be fur- 
nished in close pi'oximity to the schoolhouse, an adequate sum of money is paid as 
an indemnity. At present the school council of tho State of Hamburg is consid- 
ering a new scale of salaries, in which the minimum salax'ies are greatly increased. 
The so-called free city of Hamburg consists of the city i^roper, with about 500,000 
inhabitants, and a surrounding territory called Hamburg land; both together form 
one of the constituent States of the German Empire. 

Bremen: Tho figures quoted in the table for Bremen contain tho sums paid for 
rent; hence they appear greater in comparison than they ought to be. It is reason- 
able to deduct 20 per cent to arrive at the actual salary and thus make them com- 
parable with the other salaries granted. 

Llibeck : Tho rural teachers of tho country districts of the free city of Liibeck 
havo free dwelling, fuel, and not less than 25 acres of garden and field. This is very 
much more than is comprised in the provisions for Prussian teachers, since Prussian 
teachers are provided with the kitchen garden, but certainly not with 25 acres of 
field. Fuel for the teachers in Liibeck has been calculated at 100 marks, hence the 
scale quoted should read 1,000 to 1,-500 marks, beginning with the fifth year of 
service. 

Though all these A'arious calculations, which were unavoidable iu the attempt 
to equalize tho figures so as to enable comparison, may not in every case be abso- 
lutely correct, they are certainly as near the trutli and the actual facts as possible. 
Essential errors are excluded and the figures submitted in tho following tables, 
therefore, with the possible exception of Oldenburg and Bremen, olfer a safe basis 
for comparison. 

The first of the two tables following makes possible the reply to a number of 
important questions, for instance: What salary is offered a teacher at an ago when 
marrhxgo seems proper and advisable? Let us take a completed twenty-eighth year 



EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 151 

of life, w'liicli v/ould l>o about the uintli year of service as a teacher, and we shall 
SCO that (excluding Bremen) Ilessia stands at the head "with 1,200 marks, Trhile 
Prussia falls short of that hy 220 marks. After twenty-five years of service the 
teachers in Anhalt are at the head with 1,860 marks, while those of Prussia fall 
short hy 420 marks. The figures in fall-face typo indicate the date at which the 
maximum salary is reached. ITero wo notice enormous differences. Hamburg (land) 
stands at the head with from seventeen to twenty years of service; Wiirtemberg at 
the foot of the scale Avith thirty-six years of service. Bavaria has no maximum 
salary fixed at all. 

The second table contains the total sums paid for salary as well as average sums. 
These figures appear to bo of greater A-alue than those of the first table, inasmuch as 
they exemx)lify the actual value of certain orders or classes. In both grand totals, 
namely, in that of twenty-five years and that of fifty years of service, the little 
State of Anhalt is at the head, while Prussia remains behind with 227 and 323 marks, 
respectively. 

If the numerical relation of the Prussian teachers is taken into consideration, a 
greater emphasis must be laid upon the salaries up to the twenty-fifth years of serv- 
ice; greater, certainly, than upon the increases ofiered after that time. For this rea- 
son in the year 1891 there were engaged of every 100 teachers — 

In first to fifth year 22. 421 ^g g-? 

In sixth to tenth year 20. 80 J 

In eleventh to fifteenth year 15. 421 ^~ o~ 

In sixteenth to twentieth year 10. 43 J 

In twenty-first to thirtieth year 15. 98 15.98 

In thirty-first to fortieth year 10. 571 

In forty -first to fiftieth year 3. 98^ 14.95 

More than fifty years 4oJ 

Total 100.00 100.00 

The salary reached after the thirtieth year of service is drawn only by one-seventh 
of the total number of teachers, while two-thirds of them reach the salary offered 
at fifteen years of service. 

The figures in the tables must not bo mistaken to mean rainimi^m income, but they 
are to represent the salaries only. There are other sources of income for teachei's, 
and their normal school training prepares them for that purpose. The iirofessioual 
preparation of a teacher includes instrumental and vocal music, particularly the 
playing of the organ. AVe quote a few figures showing what income teachers in 
Germany derive from this church service; but it must bo understood that the figures 
are all minimum not maximum salaries, since it is the intention to show the mini- 
mum income of German teachers. 

In Bavaria service as organist or sexton is jiaid for only in a few communities, 
and the compiler is unable to state the salary with any degree of accuracy. In 
Wiirtemberg the teacher is expected to serve in church without any special pay 
whatever. In Saxony the income from church service is calculated only when it 
amounts to more than 900 marks. In Baden all church service on the part of the 
teacher is prohibited except that as organist, and the least salary paid for that is 
100 marks a j'ear ; but in most cases it is much more. In Ilessia the same conditions 
prevail. In Oldenburg the highest salary for service in church is jiaid in the Prot- 
estant communities, namely, 300 marks. In Catholic communities the payment of 
salary is not regulated, and varies considerably. In Weimar the teachers' p.ay for 
serving in church is not regulated either. In Brunswick 200 marks, in Anhalt 
between 100 and 150 marks are paid, while in Gotha the rural districts pay only 93 
marks. In Coburg the salaries for church service vary and are not regulated. In 
Meiningcn the salaries for church service in rural districts amount to 175 to 250 
marks. In Altenburg no salary is paid, and in Eeuss (senior line) 240 marks while 



152 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 



iu Keuss (junior line) 200 marks are paid. Schwarzbiirg-Roilolstadt pays from 100 
to 150 marks. In Schwarzburg-Sondershausen 200 marks ; in Lippe, according to 
the sizeoftlie congregation, from 70 to 250 marks; iu Schaumberg-Lippe, 300 marks; 
in Bremen (rural districts) between 200 and 600 marks. These sums must be divided 
by four to express them in American money, but that procedure would not approx- 
imately come near the real state of afiairs, because the purchasing power of money 
is very much greater in Germany than it is in America; however, while the neces- 
sities of life, such as bread, fruit, and meat, are only a little cheaper than in this 
country, everything that bears the character of luxury or contributes to comfort is 
vastly cheaper than iu this country. 

One more point may be stated, and that is the number of years after which a 
definite apijointmeut can take place That period is counted from the date of grad- 
uation from the normal school. Bavaria, after seven years; Wiirtemberg, after nine 
to ten years; Saxony, after three years; Baden, after eight years; Hessia, after 
four to five years; Oldenburg, after four years; Weimar, after two years ; Brunswick, 
after five years; Anhalt, after two years; Gotha, after two years; Coburg, after two 
years; Meiuiugen, after two years; Altenburg, after two years; Reuss (senior line), 
after two years ; Reuss (junior line), after two years ; Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, after 
two years; Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, after two years; Lippe, after four years; 
Hamburg (land), after five to eight years; Bremen (land), after five j-ears; Lubeck 
(land), after four years. 

We add a list of German cities with the statement of average salaries paid to 
teachers in elementary schools. This list has been compiled, from a work entitled 
"Die Gehaltsverhiiltuisse der Volksschullehrer," by H. Henck aiid H. Ischerlaud. 
A cursory glance at this table will show that the teachers in cities are not as well 
provided for as they deserve. 

AVERAGE SALARIES IN GERMAN CITIES IN 1880. 

As a basis of calculation it is assumed that the average length of service of teach- 
ers in Germany is thirty years. Calculations made in this Bureau from oificial 
tables published by the minister of education in Berlin make this appear correct, 
for the result arrived at was twenty-nine years and five months. The following list 
states the amount of salary only, and does not include any indemnity for rent, which 
is almost invariably paid, in addition to the salary, at the rate of 20 per cent of the 
latter. For the convenience of American readers the amounts are ex[)ressed in 
dollars and cents: 



Frank Ibrt on the 

Main $743.50 

Leipzig 701.00 

Berlin 700.00 

Hamburg 694 . 00 

Mannheim 673.75 

Regensburg 644.00 

Munich 638. 75 

Maycnce 626.25 

Carlsruhe 621.25 

Dresden 617.00 

Nuremberg 606.80 

Darmstadt 606. 50 

Ludwigshafen 603. 50 

Freiburg 595. 50 

Chemnitz 590.60 

Charlottenburg . . 590. 00 

Cologne 582.00 

Wurz burg 582. 00 



Elberfeld $581.00 

Barmen 58 LOO 

Bremen 577. 00 

Liibeck 576. 00 

Off^enbach 574.25 

Fiirth 572.40 

Kiel 503.25 

Essen 563.25 

Brunswick 560.00 

Worms 559. 00 

Cassel 558.00 

Dortmund 555.50 

Augsburg 550. 00 

Diisseldorf 542.00 

Coblenz 541.50 

Strassburg 536.50 

Duisburg 535. 75 

Miilheim on the 

Rhine 534. 50 



Ulni $534. 00 

Hamm 528. 50 

Miilhansen 528.25 

Altona 527.60 

Hof 520.75 

Breslan 526. 75 

Aix la Chapelle . . 517. 00 

Burtscheid 517 00 

Llanover 515.00 

Bayreuth 515.00 

Bremerhafen 515. 00 

Posen 510.00 

Wiesbaden 504.00 

Bochum 502.50 

Ansbach 498. 00 

Diiren 494.00 

Hanau 492.25 

Schalke 486.00 

Heilbrom 484.00 



EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 



153 



Willielmshafen . . . $478. 00 

Hagen 478 00 

Rostock 476.00 

Siegen 475. 50 

Speier 475.50 

Remscheid 474. 50 

Saarbriicken 474, 00 

Stettin 471.50 

Glogau 471.50 

Cannstadt 470. 50 

Gmiind 470.00 

TubiDgen 470.00 

Halle 468.00 

Milllieim on the 

Ruhr 467.00 

Soliugen 465. 00 

Bielfekl 462.00 

Gelseukirchen.... 460.00 

Hameln 459.50 

Magdeburg 458. 50 

Neu Brandenburg . 458. 25 

Gottingen 456.25 

Scbwerte 453.25 

Hildeslieim 452.00 

Potsdam 4.'i2, 00 



Osnabriick $452. 00 

Gorlitz 452.00 

Jiihch 450.00 

Passau 445. 00 

Neuss 442. 50 

Bingen 442.50 

Celle 441.25 

Liineburg 441. 75 

Liegnitz 441.00 

Stade 435. 75 

Altenburg 435.25 

Spandau 434.25 

Emden 431.00 

Elbing 431.00 

Eberswalde 423.00 

Nordliausen 423. 00 

Bromberg 423. 00 

Erfurt 418. 75 

Glaucbau 417.50 

Scbwerin 417.00 

I Kupeuik 415.50 

Ballenstedt 415.25 

Beruburg 415. 25 

Cotben 415.25 

Zerbst 415.25 



Da,uzig $405.75 

Paderborn 405.75 

Lippstadt 404.50 

Verden 404.50 

Brandenburg 403. 25 

Hirscbberg 400. 00 

Griinberg 392. 75 

Goslar 392. 75 

Thorn 392.75 

Coslin 391.00 

Luckenwalde 390.50 

Marburg, 389.00 

Blinde 382.25 

Angermund 383.00 

Halberstadt 381. 00 

Hochst 379.75 

Frankfort on the 

Oder 379. 75 

Konigsberg 377. 25 

Coburg 377. 00 

Lauban 367. 00 

Wernigerode 364. 00 

Soudersbausen . . . 362. 50 

Wittenberg 354. 00 

Buuzlau 353.25 



Table 1.- 



-Minimum teacher »' salaries in German States, in mai 
increases. 



including periodical 



[Sums expressed in marks, equal to 23.8 cents in American money. Add about 20 per cent jjaid for 

rent.] 



State. 



Prussia, bill of 1896 

Bavaria, regulation of 1893-94 
Palatinate, regulation of 1893-94 

Wiirtemberg, law of 1895 

Saxony, law of 1892 

Badeu, law of 1892 , 

Hessia, bill of 1896 

Oldenburg, law of 1888 

Saxe Weimar, law of 1892 

Brunswick, law of 1895 

Anhalt, resolution of 1892 

Gotha, law of 1892 

Coburg, law of 1 895 

Meiningen, law of 1894 

Altenburg, law of 189y 

Eeuss (senior) , law of 1891 

Reuss (junior), law of 1893 

SchwarzbTirg-Eudolstadt, law 

of 1891 

Scb warzburg-Sondershau sen, 

law of 1896 

Lippe, law of 1891 

Hamburg (rural), 1879 

Bremen (rural), 1891 

Liibeck (rural), 1892 



Year of service, counted from the date of graduation from normal 
school. 



7201 
817 
640 
69o! 
7701 
800] 
7C01 
4951 
850' 
720, 
840 ' 
720; 
650 
750' 
720 ! 
690, 
900 



720 

817 

640 

690 

770 

800 

700 

495 

850 

720 

840 

720 

050 

7501, 

720 1, 

690 

9001, 



720 
817 
640 

690 

770 1 

900 

900 

525 

950 

900 

940 

880 

800 

000 

050 

840 

000 



750, 750 900 



858 

720 
850 
100 1, 
000,1, 



858| 
72o; 
850; 



858 

720 
850 



720 

817 
640 
690 
, 000 
900 
900 
655 
950 
900 
940 



900 900 
817; 889; 
640] 702! 
690 860 1 
,000 1,000 1, 

9001 9oo; 

900 1, 100 1, 
685' 700; 
950; 950' 
900 1, 0001, 
9401, 0401, 
880 8801 
800 800 1,000:1, 
1,000 I, 000 1, OOOil, 
1,050 1,050 1, 050J1, 

8401 840i 840 
1,0001,0001, OOO'l, 



900 

889 

702 

860 

000 

9U0 

100 

850 

950 

0001, 

0401, 

880 1, 

000 1, 

100 1, 

0.50 1, 

840 

0001, 



980 
000 
900 

860 

0001, 

9001, 

100; 1, 

850 

0901. 

000 1, 

040; 1, 

0301, 

000 1, 

1001, 

0501, 

990 

150 1 



10. 11. 12. 13, 



900 

1,003 
720 
850 

1,100 



ioo;i, 1(10 

(500 1,000' 1,000 



900 

1,003 

820 

850 

1,100 

1,100 



900 

1,145 

820 

850 

1, 500 

1,100 



900 975 

1, 145 1, 145 

820 1, 000 
1, 150 1, 150 
l,500l 1,500 
1, 10011, 163 



9801, 
1, 000 1, 
900 1 
800 I, 
1,0001, 
1,100,1, 
1,200 1, 
I, 065 1, 
1,090 1, 
1,100 1, 
1, 140 1, 
1, 030il, 
1,000 1, 
1,100 1, 
0501,100:1, 
990 990| 
150 1,1501, 



0601, 

090 1, 

9901 

150,1, 

200;i, 

1001, 



975 



1,145 

1,000 
1,150 



975 



200 
065 
090 
100 
140 
030 
150 
100 
100 
990 
1501 



975 



O60 1, 060 
090|1, 180 
990 990 
150 1, 150 
200 1,200 
200 1, 2C0 
3001,300 
065 1, 065 
090'], 180 
20011,200 
290 1,290 
030 1, 180 
1501,150 
250 1, 250 
1001,100 
9901,140 
150 1, 300 



975 



1,288 



1, 145 1, 288 

1, ooo:i,oooji,ooo 

1,2501,250 1,250 
l,750|l,750jl, 750:2, 000 
1,163 1,163 1,225 1,225 



1,050 

1,288 
1,150 
1, 350 
2,000 
1,225 



154 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-93. 



TaTiLt:: 1. — 2/i»imn:n ieaclurs' salaries in German Slates, in marls, indudliKj periodical 

increases — Contiuued. 



Stale. 



rrnssi.1, bill of 189G 

Uaviiria, regulation of 1893- 
04 

ralatinate, regulation of 
1893-94 

Wiirtemberg, law of 18^5 .. 

Saxonj-, law of 1802 

Baileii, law of 1893 

Hcssia, bill of 1S95 

Okl(ji!burs, law of 1888 

Sase-AYoimar, law of 1892 .. 

Brunsv.'ick, law of 1895 

Anlialt, resolution of 1892 . . 

Gotha, law of 1892 

Coburg, law of 1895 

Meiniugen, law of 1894 

Altenburg, law of 1893 

Keuss (senior), law <if 1891.. 
lieuss (.junior), laAv of ] 893 . . 
Scliwarzburg-Kudolstadt, 

law of 1891 

Scliwarzburg-Suudershaii- 

Ron, law of 189G 

Lippe, law of 1891 

Hamburg (rural), 1879 

Bremen (rural), 1891 

Llibcck (rural), 1892 



Tear of service, counted from the date of graduation from normal school. 



14. 15. 10. I 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 



1,140 1,140 1, 140!l, 220 1,220 



1,1801.1801, 



1,080 1, 
1,150 1, 
1, 200 1, 
1,200 1, 
1,300 1, 
1,1401. 
1, 180 1, 
1,3001. 
1,2901, 
1, ISO 1, 
1, 150 1, 
1,2501, 
1,1001, 
1, 140 1, 
1,300 1, 



080[1, 
1.50 1, 
200 1, 
300|l, 
4001, 
1401, 
1801, 
300 1, 
4401, 
1801, 
150 1, 
2501, 
1501, 
1401, 
3001, 



2701, 

i 
1701, 
150 1, 
350 1, 
300 1, 
4001, 
1401, 
1801, 

4oo;i, 

4401, 
180 1, 
300,1, 
2501, 
1501, 
140 1, 
3001, 



270 1, 270 

I 
1701,170 
200 1, 200 
350 1, 350 
300 1,400 
400 1, 500 
140,1,140 
ISOil, 300 
400; 1,500 
4401,500 
ISO 1, 330 
300,1, SOO 
400 1, 400 
150 1, 150 
140 1,200 
300 1, 450 



1,0501,0501.0501,0.50 



1,125 



1,2881,2881,430,1,430 1,430 



1,1.50 1,150 1,150 1,150 
'1,3501, 3501, 450!l, 450 
2, 000 2, 250 1, 250 2, 250 
1,2881,2881,2881,350 



1,300 

1, 450 

2, 500 
1,350 



1,2201,300 
1, 270 1, 270 



1, 170;i, 
1, 200 1, 
1, 350;1, 
1,400 1, 
1, 500 1, 
1,21511, 
1, 300!l, 
1,50011, 
1,56011, 
1,3301, 
1, 300,1, 
1, 400 1, 
1,1501, 
1,290 1, 
1,4501, 



1,300,1,300 1,330! 1,330 1,380! 1,400 
1,3601,3001 1,300 1,300 1,360: 1,450 



500 

560 

830 

300 

400 

200 

290 1 

4501 



260 1, 260: 
2001, 250' 
500 1,500 
500:i, 500: 
6001,0001 
215 1, 215! 
3001, 300 
C00'1,C00! 
7101,710! 
330 1, 330 
4501,450 
400|l, 550l 
200;],200| 
290 1, 2D0, 
4501,450 



1,200 

1,250 
1,500 
1,500 
1.600 
1,215 
1,450 
1,000 
1,710 
1, 480 
1,450 
1,550 
1,200 
1,440 
1,600 



1, 125 1, 125 1, 125 1. 125 1,200 



1,430,1,430,1,573,1,573 
1,300 1,300 1,3001,300 

l,5S0l I 

2, 500,2, 500 2, 750 2, 750 
1,3501,4131,4131,413 



1,573 
1,450 



2,750 
1,475 



1, 200 1, 
1,2501, 
1,500 1, 
1,0001. 
1,700 1, 
1,2901, 
1,450 1, 
1,7001, 
1,8001, 
1,480 1. 
1,4501, 
l,5o0'l, 
1,200,1, 
1,440 1. 
1,0001. 



200; 1.350 

250 1,250 

bm\ 1,600 

coo' 1,000 

700 1,700 

290' 1.290 

450 1,450 

700 1,700 

S60| 1, SCO 

4S0: 1,480 

450 l.fiOO 

.550' 1,559 

300: 1,3C0 

440 1,440 

600 ! 1.600 



1,573 
1,450 



l,573j 1,715 
1,450 1,450 



8,000 

l,4751,475i 1,538 



States. 



Pru.ssia, bill of 
1890 

Bavaria, regula- 
tion of 1893-94. 

Palatinate, regu- 
lation of 1893-94 

"Wiir tomb erg, 
law of 1895 

Saxon V, law of 
1892". 

Baden, law of 1892 

Ile.^.sia, bill of 
1890 

Oldenburg, law 
of 1888 

Saxe- Weimar, law 
of 1892 

Brunswick, law 
of 1895 

Anlialt, resolu- 
tion of 1892 

Gotlia,lawoflS92 

Coburg, law of 
1895 

Meiningen, law 
of 1.S94 

Altenburg, law 
of 1893 

Eeuss (senior), 
law of 1891 

Bou.ss (junior), 
law of 1893 

ScliwarK burg- 
lludolst adt, 
law of 1891 

Sell v/ar zbur g- 
Soudershau.'jen, 
law of 1896 

Lippclawof 1891 

Hamburg (rural), 
1879 

Bremen (rural), 
1891 



Year of service, counted from the date of graduation from normal school. 



1,460 

1,450 

1, 350 

1, 300 

1 

1,600 

1,700 

1,800 

1, 290! 

1,450 

1,800 

2.010 

1,480 



1,400 

1,450 

1,350 

1,300 

1,000 
1,700 

1,800 

1,2S0 

1,600 

1, 800 



1, 540| 1,540 1,540 l,020l. 

Ill 
l,450j 1,4501,540 

1,350 1,350 1,440 

1,300 1,3001,300 



1,000 
1,700 

1,800 

1,305 



l,600il,700 
l,800!l, 800 



2,000 . . 
1, 3051, 305 



1,800 1,900. 



1,«30 



1,510 1,540, 1,540 1,540 

I I 

1,4401,940 1,440 1,440 

I I I 

1,400 1,400 1,440 1,400 



1,630 

1,530 
1,400 



38. 



I 

1.700 1,7001 1,700, l,700:i,ROO, 
1,8001,900 l,900i 1,900:2,000, 



1,6301,0301,6301,030 

I I I 

1,5301,530 1,5301,530 

1,500 



1,36511,440 



1,700 
1,300 



1,700! 1,700; 1,700,1,700' 1,800 



1,300, 1,300: 1,4001,400 



1,440 1,550 
1,600 1,750 , 



1,450 1,000 



1,400 



1,400 1,400 



1,500 



Liibeck (rural) 
1892 ' 



1,538 1,538 1,600 
I 11 



EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 



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156 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 

Salaries of Teachers in the People's Schools of Austria. 

Tlie Yearbook of Political Economy aud Statistics, edited, iu Jena, 
Germany, by four eminent university professors of Balle, Breslau, aud 
Gottingen, contains in tbe second number of the volume for 180C au 
article on the income of persons engaged in elementary and burgher 
schools. The author refers in this to the forty-second volume of 
"Austrian Statistics, Official Organ of the Government", which gives 
minute information concerning the expenditures for public education 
in Austria. This publication is especially welcome, since information 
on this subject has been very difficult to obtain. The position of 
Austrian teachers is a new factor iu the social life of the Empire. This 
is plainly seen from the rapid increase both in the number of teachers 
and the amount of salaries paid. 



Year. 


^•^^f^^ Salaries 

teachers. I'""'- 

1 


1865 


j F lorinis. 
20, 104 I 4 940,000 


1871 


20, 099 7 302, 000 


1875 


24, 705 1 12 921 HOC 


1880 


29,950 1 17,290,000 


1890 


40, 733 25, 738 000 







During the last twenty-five years about 20,000 teachers liave been 
added to the number engaged iu 1865, and the great change iu their 
social position is seen from the fact that their entire income to-day is 
five times greater than it was twenty- five years ago. But if we con- 
sider that the number has doubled, we may take it that the same social 
stratum of 1805, i^laced on an equal footing with 1890, may be said to 
have an income two and one-half times as great as twenty five years ago. 

jMany of the 40,000 teachers (the annual statistics published by the 
Government shows the number of teachers to be in the neiglsborhood 
of 70,000 instead of 40,000, but this includes all teachers of religion and 
special branches, such as music, drawing, gymnastics, etc., which special 
teachers are not included in the number of regular class teachers; the 
40,133 includes only class teachers, such as head teachers and princi- 
pals, teachers aud assistants) are engaged in city schools; hence the 
profession of teaching begins to exercise a political influence in munici- 
pal public life. That the teachers in Austria are considered a new 
factor with which it is well to reckon is seen from the action taken by 
the legislative bodies of the Empire as well as of the Crown land. As 
is well known, the citizens of Austria and Germany are divided int > 
electoral classes, aiul the teachers are included iu the class of officers 
of the State. These classes vote separately on election day, aud the 
intelligence of the teachers iu xK)litical aflairs is not without influence, 
as is plainly seen in large cities, such as Vienna. 

The constantly increasing number of women teachers also is au impor- 
tant social factor. At present the number of women teachers is a little 
less than one-fifth of the total number. The numerical relation of the 



EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 



157 



female sex in tlie various grades of the profession may be seen from the 
folio VA'inar table: 



Principals and head teachers . . . 
Teacliers 

Assistants, definitely appointed 
Assistants, jiro visor j' 

Total 



Men. 


Women. 


Total. 


8,284 

15,318 

5,276 

5,121 


447 
3, 820 
1,770 
1,768 


8,731 
19, 138 

7,04C 
0,889 



7,805 I 41,804 



This table shows that the position of women uuiong the head teachers 
is a subordinate one, since in the highest grade, in that of principals 
and head teachers, the women are represented only by one-twentieth 
of the number; in the next lower grade, in that of teachers, they are 
represented by only one-fifth of the number; but in the next lower 
grade, in that of assistants, they are represented by one-fourth of the 
number. The cause is, partly, that the women in Austria have only 
recently turned to the profession of teaching; hence those engaged in 
it are not experienced — that is to say, not old enough to have been 
promoted to the highest grades of the profession. But the cause may 
also lie in the fact that tlie governmental authorities do not consider 
women adapted for executive duties. 

A better insight into the social position of the teachers in Austria, 
and partly into the difference existing between the social position of 
the two sexes, is gained by a study of the following table, based upon 
official data of 1890 : 



Salaries of teachers in elemeutar)/ and burgher schools in Austria, 1890. 



Salaries. 



Number 
of men. 



Number 

of 
women. 



Eatio of- 



Men. 



Women. 



200 florins 

200 to 249 tlorins 

250 to 299 florins , 

300 to 349 florins 

350 to 399 florins 

400 to 450 florins 

450 to 499 florins 

iJOO to 549 flcjrins 

550 to 599 florins 

600tO'649 florins 

650 to 699 florins 

700 to 749 florins 

750 to 799 florins 

800 to 849 florins 

850 to 899 florins 

91)0 to 950 florins 

950 to 999 florins 

1,000 to 1,099 florins . 
1,100 to 1,199 florins . 
1,200 to 1,299 fliirius . 
1,300 to 1,399 florins . 
1,400 to 1,499 florins . 
1,500 to 1,599 florins . 
1, 600 to 1,G19 florins . 
1, 700 to 1, 79'.; florins . 
1,800 to 1,899 florins . 

1, 900 to 1, 999 florins . 

2, 0(10 florins and luore 

Total 



593 
408 
520 
180 
718 
055 
215 
219 
074 
240 
349 
979 
091 
514 
198 
191 
041 
216 
015 
308 
449 
356 
294 
125 
58 
90 
40 
101 



830 

256 

559 

674 

344 

1,019 

561 

344 

321 

685 

401 

278 

179 

184 

197 

206 

135 

280 

273 

39 

31 

6 

3 



Per cent. 
1.7 
1.3 
4.4 
6.4 
8.0 
10.8 
3.6 
6.5 
6.1 
6.6 
6.9 
5.8 
5.0 
4.5 
3.5 
3.5 
3.1 
3.6 
3.1 
1. ] 
1.3 
1.0 
.9 
.4 

!3 

.1 



Per 



cent. 
10.6 
3.3 
7.2 
8.6 
4.4 
13.1 
7.2 
4.4 
4.1 
8.8 
5.1 
3.6 
2.3 
2.4 
2.5 
2.6 
1.7 
3.6 
3.5 
!5 
.4 
.1 



33, 990 



158 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-98. 

If the foregoing data are gToupecl we obtain tLc followiug represen- 
tation : 



S;ilaries. 


Men. 


"Women. 


Less than 600 florins 


Per cznt. 

48.8 

42.5 

8.7 


Per cent. 
62 9 


COO to 1,000 florins 


30 G 


More than 1,000 florins - 


4 5 










100 


100 



This sliows that nearly one-half of the men and two-thirds of the 
women teachers receive the "minimum of existence," which statisticians 
have estimated at G30 florins (.$303.GG); 42^ per cent of the men ar.d 
32.G per cent of the women receive salaries ranging from 600 to 1,000 
florins. This again shows a very disadvantageous x)Osition of the female 
sex, which is particularly noticeable in the highest group, where only 4J 
per cent of the women are ranged, while 8.7 per cent of the men are 
found there. 

The foregoing tables plainly exhibit the fact that the income of 
teachers, be they men or women, is low, about G50 florins at an average. 
Although the sum total paid to the teachers amounts to nearly 
26,000,000 florins, and although this social class has become an impor- 
tant political factor, it must still be admitted that the pecuniary condi- 
tion of many teachers in Austria is very modest indeed. This is the 
more striking as the school laws passed in 1868 lifted the profes.sion 
of teaching to a new social footing. The appropriations and taxes 
voted for and paid by communities, districts, and Crown lands for school 
purposes, and which have during the last thirty years added new 
burdens to the taxpayers, are constantly increasing. Modern life lays 
claims upon the exchequer of the modern State which were unknown 
in former times. The new school buildings, furniture, and equipment 
require enormous sums; so that interest-bearing debts increase the 
annual appropriations for school purj)Oses and even frustrate the best 
intentions of raising the salaries of the teachers. Austria has just 
cause to be proud of its enormous expenditures for school purposes in 
recent years, and particularly for its magnificent school buildings. The 
teachers of Austria stand foremost in the i)rofession and command 
the respect of the world for their heroic efforts in behalf of public 
education. 



Eefoem Schools in the Grand Duchy of Baden, Germany. 

The system of reform schools^ in the Grand Duchy of Baden in Ger- 
many is regulated by law of May, 1886, which began to operate January, 
1887. The secretaries of the departments of justice and the interior 

' These data are translated from a German magazine of recognized anthority in 
statistics, Jalirbiicher fiir National Oekonomio und Statistik, Volume XIII, Heft 3, 
page 446. 



EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 159 

prepared tlie rules and regulations necessitated by tlie new law. The 
law is similar to paragraph 55 of tlio Imperial Criminal Code, adopted 
February 2G,.187C. According to this code, persons who commit a crime 
beibre tliey are 12 years of age can not be tried for crime, but naay be 
kept in custody for tlie i^urpose of reforming tbem, according to the 
s]>ecial law of the separate State. Such children nniy bo idaced under 
reform training, if both the criminal and the orx)han court have so 
decreed. 

The Baden law goes two steps farther than the general imperial code: 
(1) It fixes the maximum time limit at 10 years of age; that is to say, 
juvenile criminals are not prosecuted or tried for crime in Baden if less 
than IG years of age, but are retained in reform schools. (2) The law 
does not confine its operations to criminal acts, but requires that youths 
up to 16 years of age be assigned to reform schools for moral misde- 
meanors, provided (a) that parents or guardians endanger the moral 
life of the children by misuse of their authority or by neglect; or (&) 
that the conduct of the children proves that neither the good efibrts of 
parents and guardians nor the means of discipline in school are adequate 
to prevent their moral depravity. 

The Baden law (section 12) further decrees that if a person accused 
of crime between 12 and 18 years of age' is acquitted owing to his 
tender age and want of good judgment, the court shall state whether 
he is to be returned to his famil^^, or i)laced in custody of another family, 
or be detained in a reform school. 

The execution of the law is left in the hands of the county courts 
(criminal and probate "Bezirks-Aemter"). The courts are charged 
with the careful investigation of the conditions of the child's liome 
environments, in order to decide whether the home gives proper assur- 
ance of wholesome influence in the future. In aggravated cases of 
moral depravity, which require constant supervision and strict disci- 
pline, the culprit is to bo sent to a reform school without further delay. 

Concerning the age of reform school i)upils, only the maximum (IG or 
18 years, respectively) is clearly defined, while with regard to the mini- 
mum the law is silent; but the ministerial regulations state that chil- 
dren under G years should be sent to reform schools only in specially 
urgent cases. The law specifically states that poorhouses, hospitals, 
and asylums for persons of defective senses are not to be regarded or 
used as reform schools in the sense of the law; but it admits to legal 
recognition as reform schools all institutions established by corpora 
tions and i)rivate persons or through endowment which have the i)ur- 
pose of saving morally depraved children and training them to be useful 
citizens and members of society. This recognition is granted by the 
secretary of the interior; courts are not x)ermitted to designate any 
institution as a reform school so long as the secretary of the interior 
withholds his recognition. 

ilu exceptioual cases tlie time limit is exteuded to 19 years. 



160 



EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. 



The State's right to educate '^by force" (that is, in reform schools) 
ends with the completed eighteenth year of the juvenile offender. 
Pupils may be dismissed from reform schools before they are 18, if the 
purpose of their reform training has been accomplished, or if it is rea- 
sonably secured by other means. This release is revocable at first, for 
if inquiry reveals that the guardians fail to follow u^) the good work of 
the school, a pupil may be brought back by the police. 

One- third of the costs of this compulsory training is borne by the 
poor fund of the town or district from which the pupil comes. In case 
the parents can afford to defray the expense, the town may collect from 
them, and the State bears two-thirds of the expenses, except the cost 
of traveling, which must be borne by the town or district. 

So much concerning the legal requirements. Now let us see what the 
results of this compulsory training are. According to official state- 
ments (year 1893) the number of pupils in the various institutions for 
that purpose and under the charge of families, was : 

Xiimber of pupils under reform training. 



Tear. 



1887 
3888 
3889 
389.1 
1891 
18.12 
1893 



Boys. 


Girls. 


Total. 


Legiti- 
mate. 


Illegiti- 
mate. 


69 


48 


117 


96 


21 


181 


88 


269 


224 


45 


30.-$ 


138 


441 


368 


73 


410 


191 


601 


507 


94 


505 


229 


734 


622 


112 


583 


267 


850 


721 


129 


697 


341 


1,038 


893 


145 



Ratio of 
illegiti- 
mates. 



Per cent. 
18 

16.7 
15.6 
15.6 
15.3 
15.2 
14 



From this table it is seen that more boys than girls were subjected 
to compnlsory training. In 1893 the number of boys amounted to 07.2 
per cent of the total number, hence more than two-thirds. It is of inter- 
est to note, also, that the percentage of illegitimate children decreased 
from 18 to 14 per cent within six years. It is evident that family life 
in Baden has improved even in the strata from which refractory and 
depraved children are taken to reform schools. The official statement 
from which the contents of this article are drawn gives no information 
concerning the occui)ation or profession of the fathers. 

With reference to the kind of provision made for the children in need 
of compulsory training, it is stated that 440 (36.5 per cent) of the total 
number in 1S93 were assigned to private families and 703 (03.4 per 
cent) to institutions, so-called reform farms or reform schools. Of 
the whole number (1,038), the majority (namely, 888) were less than 14 
years old, and of these 336 (37.8 per cent) were placed in private 
families, while 552 (02.2 per cent) were assigned to institutions. Of the 
315 who had i)assed the fourteenth year of life, 104 (33 per cent) were 
placed in families, and 211 (67 per cent) in institutions. Year after year, 
as tlie operation of the law became more effective, and the number 
of children assigned to comijulsory training increased, the number of 



EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 



161 



those assigned to reformatory iiistitutious remained in the majority. 
The hitter proportion amounted to 57.3, 61, C0.8, (58.4, 65.7, 68.2, and 
61.3 per cent in the successive years from 1887 till 1893. At the (ilose 
of the year 1893, 19 pupils (1.9 per cent) of reform schools or given into 
custody of private families had escaped from supervision. 

Of the 290 boys over 14 years of age assigned to families, 224 were 
apprentices learning trades; 114 in cities, 110 in the country. Of 
these apprentices 144 were between 14 and 16 years of age, while 68 
were 17 years, 6 were 18 years, and 6 were 19 years of age. 

The causes which induced the authorities to assign these boys to 
reformatory training were (a) degrading influence on the part of the 
parents in 71 cases, (&) depravity of the children despite good home 
influence in 153 cases. The conduct of 180 apprentices out of 224 (83. 
per cent) was re^iorted to be good or satisfactory. Forty trades or 
occupations were represented by the apprentices; 33 were employed as 
stable boys, 23 as farm hands, 19 learned the cobbler's trade, 18 were 
in joiner's shops, 17 were bakers, 17 tailors, 11 saddlers, etc. 

Of the 82 girls over 14 years of age assigned to families, 40 were 
employed as house servants, 3 as factory hands, 6 as dressmakers and 
seamstresses. Of these 55 pupils, 42 were between 14 and 16 years of 
age, 9 were 17, 3 were 18, and 1 was 19 years of age. 

The causes for which they had been placed under compulsory train- 
ing were {a) degrading influence on the part of the parents in 33 cases, 
(b) depravity of the children despite good home influence or neglect in 
22 cases. The conduct of 45 (81.8 per cent) proved very satisfactory. 
The official data give no information concerning the occux)ation of 
children under 14 years of age, but it is presumed that they attend 
school. 

Considerable difi:'erences are noticeable in the ages of the pupils. 
They are here tabulated in percentages for each year that the law has 
been in operation : 

Jge of pupils under reform training. 



Tear. 



1887 

1888 

1889 

1890 

1891 

1892 

189;i 

Average 



Under 10 
years. 



Per cent. 
Z5 

28. G 
31.5 
21.3 
24.3 
20 
19.8 



10 to U 
years. 



Over 14 

years. 



Per cent. 
47 

57.8 
49.7 
51.1 
46.1 
44.1 
46.8 



Per cent. 
18 

13.6 
18.8 
27.6 
29.6 
35.9 
33.6 



25 



26.2 



Total. 



• ce.nt. 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 



100 



While the annual number of children between 10 and 14 years of age 
remained at about one-half of the sum total, the numbers of those under 
10 and over 14 show an almost uniform change, the former of descend- 
ing the latter of ascending tendency. From this it is seen that the 
authorities commit young children to compulsory training much more 
ED 96 6 



162 



EDUCATION EEPORT, 1895-96. 



rarely of late years tliau seemed desirable at the begiuning. It is 
iwssible that tlie cost of maintenance of these children induces the 
authorities not to resort to reform training. 

German g'overnmental authorities recognize in their statistical tabu- 
latious only three religious denominations: Catholic, Protestant, and 
Jews, to which sometimes they add a column for Dissenters " or others." 
The i)roportion of Catholics and Protestants among the children under 
discussion Avas as follows: 



Year. 



1887 
1888 
1889 
1890 
1891 
1892 
1893 



Catliolics. 



Per cent. 
58.1 
66.9 
CI. 9 
72.4 
Co. 7 
Ci.7 
64.7 



Protestauts. 



Per cent. 
41.9 
33.1 
38.1 
27.6 
34.3 
35.3 
35.3 



This proportion is very nearly analogous to the proi^ortion of Catholics 
and Protestants in the population Avhich was in 1890, 3G per cent 
Protestants and G3 per cent Catbolics. 

It is interesting to observe how many of the children under reforma- 
tory training had parents. At the time when the courts decided upon 
their fate there liad-:- 



Year. 



1887 

1888 

1S89 

1890 

1891 

1892 

1893 

Total 



Both 
parents. 



92 
109 



Only 
father. 



Only 
mother. 



25 


30 


21 


48 


31 


02 


28 


67 


38 


55 


20 


44 


55 


GO 


224 


372 



Neither 

father nor 

mother. 



Of the total number 4G,3 per cent had both i)areuts living, 18.G per 
cent had only father left, 30.9 per cent only a mother, and 4.2 x^er cent 
were orphans. The remarkably greater representation of children who 
had no father is exi)lained by the relatively large proportion of illegiti- 
mate children, partly owing to the relatively larger number of widows. 
The census of 1890 showed that Baden had 29,521 widowers and 70,23G 
widows. Another cause of the api^arent disproportion may be found 
in the fact that woman's hibor is i)oorly paid, hence that lone mothers 
are not always able to properly train and look after their children. 
Likewise interesting is the fact that among the 224 children who had 
only a father 29 per cent were girls, and that among the 372 who had 
only a mother 35.5 per cent were girls. 



EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 



163 



The following table gives iuformation couceniing tlie causes that 
made reformatory training necessary : 



Year. 


Parents ondan- 

gcring children's 

chai'acter. 


Depravity or 

inadequate 

liomo training. 


Criminal acts. 




K"umber. Eatio. 


Kuniber. 


Katio. 


Xumber. 


Eatio. 


Iggy 


77 
82 
80 
75 
09 
07 
93 


Per cent. 
05.8 
53.2 
44.2 
43.1 
40.9 
39.4 
39.1 


39 
71 
97 
94 
94 
98 
138 


Per cent. 
33.3 
40.1 
53.6 
51.0 
55,0 
57.7 
58.0 


1 
1 
4 
5 
G 
5 
7 


Per cent. 
0.9 


] 888 


.7 


18«9 


2.2 


1890 


2.9 


1891 


3.5 


1802 


2.9 


1893 .' 


2.9 






Total 


543 


45.2 


031 52.4 


29 


2.4 



The length of reformatory training in 26 cases was less than one 
year ; in 44 cases, one to two years 5 in 05 cases, two to three years ; in 
51 cases, three to four years; in 41 cases, four to five years; in 17 cases, 
five to six years, and in 5 cases, over six years. Children released were 
returned to their x)arents in G3 cases ; given over to relatives or guard- 
ians in 16 cases; 121 entered some sort of service; of the remaining 32 
cases, 5 " went to America;" 9 having learned a trade, became travel- 
ing journeymen; 3 remained in the institutions to learn housekeeping; 
3 were sent to asylums for idiots or insane; 7 escaped; 4 were taken to 
prison, and 1 girl was " lost in bad company." 

Of all those who since 188S had been released, 125 (among whom 
were 13 girls) entered upon some kind of industrial pursuit; 23 (only 
boys) chose farm labor ; 41 (of 70) gh-ls entered upon domestic service. 
These facts give hints as to the strata of society from which the chil- 
dren came. 

The results or effects of reformatory training depend essentially \\\)0\\ 
the causes which necessitate it, that is to say, whether the children are 
subjected to dangerous x)arental influence, or whether their home influ- 
ence, though not vicious, is nevertheless injurious, because inadequate, 
or whether their own depravity is so great that society is endangered 
by them. It depends, furthermore, upon the sex, age, and method of 
training of the pui)ils, and, lastly, upon their being assigned to an 
institution or to a private family. "With regard to these various influ- 
ences, the statistical data at hand state results which may be tabulated. 
To facilitate comparison ratios are emx>loyed. Of every 100 pupils the 
effect was — 





Satisfac- 
tory. 


Doubtful. 


Xot satis- 
factory. 


TTnknown. 




Per cent. 
77.1 
78.8 


Per cent. 
12.1 

7.8 


Per cent. 
10.4 
13 


Per cent. 
0.4 




2.4 







164 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 

Generally the effect ayus satisfactory. Of every 100 pupils — 



Of all the pupils 

Of bov s 

Of iiirls 

Of childveu under 11 > 

Of cliiklieu ovei' 14 

Of boys under 14 

Of boys over M 

Of gi lis uuder 14 

Of uirls over 14 

Of cinldren admitted because endangered by parents (cause a). 
Of ( liildren admitted owing to inadequate home trainiug or 

viciousuess (causes b and c) 

Of boys (cause a) 

Of boys (causes b and<:) 

Of girls (cause a) 

Of girls (causes 6 and c) 

Of released pupils: 

Total...: 

Bovs 

Girls 



In families. 


In reform 
schools. 


Per cent. 


Pe 


• cent. 


85.2 




71.7 


84.2 




71.6 


87.6 




71.8 


92.3 




69.1 


82.1 




74 


91.2 




67.5 


81.9 




75.8 


93.9 




72.1 


82.7 




71.6 


88.2 




80.2 


82 




ee. 1 


85.6 




78.4 


83.1 




68.3 


92.3 




82 


77.2 




61.8 


75. 6 




88.3 


76.7 




84.4 


72.7 




93.8 



Average. 



Per cent. 
76. 
76 
78. 
78. 
75. 
76. 
76 



The (lata show that the effect of compulsory training' is not the same 
for both sexes, nor the same with regard to institute and family train- 
ing. Generally speaking, the results are less favorable with the boys 
than with the girls; much more favorable with children under 14 years 
of age than with those over 14, and less favorable among those who were 
admitted owing' to inadequate home influence or their own depravity. 
In viewing the effects of family and institute training it must be borne 
in mind that (1) the worst characters are assigned to institutions — chil- 
dren who could not well be put in families, and (2) that the opinion 
concerning what is satisfactory conduct in institutions and families is 
not in all cases equally well based. 

The expenditures for the support of pupils under compulsory training 
amounted to — 



Year. 


In families. 


In institu- 
tions. 


Total. 


Per cap- 
ita. 


1889 






$9, 857 
14, 504 
10. 935 
20, 697 
19, 826 


$22. 71 
22 16 


1890 


$3, 731 
4,087 
5,083 
3,549 


$10, 773 
12, 848 

15, 614 

16, 277 


1891 


21 12 


1892 


21. 74 


1893 


19 10 







The decrease in expenditures is explained bj^ the more frequent assign- 
ment of children to families who desire to take them free of cost, a 
practice which does not recommend itself, since experience shows that 
the children thus assigned are unduly burdened with work and merely 
used as drudges, and that the families who petition that pupils be 
assigned to them do not always exercise the most wholesome educa- 
tional influence upon their charges. 

It is a matter of self-evidence that the cities furnish a larger propor- 
tion of pupils who need reformatory training than the rural districts. 
Mannheim, Karlsruhe, Freiburg, and Heidelberg are represented with 



EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 165 

37 per cent of the sum total of pupils, tliougli these cities have only 23 
per cent of the population of the Grand Duchy. 

The population of the United States is about thirty-six times greater 
than that of Baden; hence we ought to have 39,oG8 children under 
reformatory training, taking the number Baden represents as a cri- 
terion, while actually we have only 20,201, according to the statistics 
offered in the Annual Eeport of the Commissioner of Education for 
1893-94. These 20,201 children cost the States (m 1893) $2,562,411, 
which is $120.85 per capita, cost of permaneut improvements for groun<ls 
and buildings not counted. The per capita in Baden was $ 1 9.10 in 1893. 
This enormous difiereuce is explained by tivs foregoing facts. 



Statistics of German, Austrian, and Swiss Universities, Poly- 
TECHNicA, Agricultural, Veterinary, Forestry, and Min- 
ing Academies. 

The statistical data concerning German universities ottered in the 
following tables are based upon official publications for the two semes- 
ters quoted, namely, the winter semester of 1894-95 and the summer 
semester of 1895. The Lyceum Hosianum in Braunsberg has not been 
included, inasmuch as the characteristics of a university are wanting 
there; it comprises only a theological faculty. The data concerning 
the agricultural school in organic connection with the university of 
Bonn do not reveal a separate number of students ; this, however, is a 
mere trifle. 

The data concerning the polytechnical and other professional schools 
are based upon direct information furnished by the officials of these 
institutions. I-t was somewhat difficult to state the totals correctly, 
since the course of study in these institutions varies considerably, some 
leaning more toward mechanical engineering, others toward other 
branches of technology. The statements concerning the number of 
foreigners among the students of technological universities are not 
complete, although it would be particularly interesting to compare the 
attendance of foreign students in these institutions with- that in uni- 
versities. Irregularities and peculiarities in the employment of pro- 
fessors and the attendance of students are stated in footnotes to each 
table. 

The tables are compiled by the editor of the Academische Eevue, 
published in Munich. (Xo. 16, vol. 2, pp. 200-212.) 



166 



EDUCATION KEPORTj 1895-96. 



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168 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96, 



•sjatrstajo^ 



JOl^O JO SaAtJB^ 

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437 
668 
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1,136 
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229 
574 
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1,575 
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1,777 
393 
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499 
804 
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1,328 
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170 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 



■1«*0X 



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172 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 









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EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 



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178 



EDUCATION EEPORT, 1895-96. 



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,, oo o ci; 



180 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 

Foreigners in Universities and other Higher Institutions 
OF Learning in Gtermany, Austria, and Switzerland, Summer 
of 1895. 

The statistics oft'eied iu the following- tables are taken from offtcial 
statements furnished by the rectors of the various institutions men- 
tioned. They are here reproduced from the Academische Eevue of 
March, 189G. A glance at the totals shows that the number of foreign- 
ers studying in (lormauy is not inconsiderable. It must be borne in 
mind, however, that the numbers given represent only those of nmtric- 
iilated students, for those are the only ones who can be considered iu 
official reports. The number of those who visit German iustitntions as 
hearers for some length of time, and without being matriculated attend 
clinics, work iu laboratories, and listen to private lectures, is very large, 
but can not be stated with accuracy. It is estimated that that number 
exceeds those of nuitriculated foreigners. In the summer of 1895 the 
uuiversities and other institutions of learning in Germany had upon 
their rolls the names of 3,3(52 ftueigners. That is, iu comparison to the 
total number of matriculated studeuts, equal to 8.48 per cent. Of these 
3,302 foreigners the universities proper had 2,015 (7 per cent), the 
polytechnica 1,041 (13.1 per cent), the veterinary schools 15 (1.53 per 
cent), the agricultural academies 101 (9.37 per cent), the forestry acade- 
mies 58 (18.() per cent), and the mining academies 132 (32.4 per cent). 
Of the 3,362 foreigners there were 9GG Russians, 514 Americans, 467 
Austriaiis and Hungarians, 346 Swiss, 180 Englishmen, 158 Hollanders, 
142 Bulgarians, 116 Swedes and Norwegians, 82 Roumanians, 69 Ital- 
ians, 57 Asiatics, 53 Frenchmen, 37 Servians, 36 Belgians, 36 Turks, 
27 Greeks, 26 Daues, 22 Africans, 14 Australians, 8 Spaniards, 4 Por- 
tuguese, aud 2 Monteuegriaus. 

In the Austrian universities and other iustituticms there were matric- 
ulated 1,106 foreigners in the summer of 1895 among a total of 18,031 
students, or 6.14 per cent. Of these 1,106 foreigners there were 987 
(6.58 per cent) students of uuiversities, the polytechnica had 84 (3.1 
per cent), the mining academies 16 (7 per cent), aud the agricultural 
academy in Vienna had 19 (7.66 per cent). The 1,106 foreigners con- 
sisted of 239 Germans, 236 Russians, 115 Servians, 111 Italians, 106 
Americans, 76 Roumanians, 71 Bulgarians, 33 Turks, 31 Englishmen, 
25 Swiss, 11 Greeks, 10 Frenchmen, 9 Hollanders, 9 Swedes and 
Norwegians, 8 Africans, 6 Belgians, 6 Asiatics, 3 Spaniards, and 
1 Montenegriau. 

The Swiss higher seats of learning matriculated no less than 1,667 
foreigners among a total of 3,908 studeuts. The percentage of foreign- 
ers here was 42.6. The universities alone enrolled 1,341, or 42.2 per 
cent, and the polytechnical school iu Ziirich 326, or 43 i^er cent, of a 
total number of the matriculated students. Of the l,6<i7 foreigners 
Germany had sent 549, Russia 399, Austria-Hungary 143, Bulgaria 137, 



EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 181 

Eouuiauia 86, Italy 68, America 6o, France G'S, Asia 26, Holland 25, 
Turkey 22, England 20, Greece 19, Servia 17, Sweden and Norway 15, 
Denmark 5, Belgium 3, Portugal 2, Airica. 2, Spain 1. 

From these summaries it is seen that as far as attendance of foreign- 
ers is concerned, Switzerland ranks first with 42.6 per cent of the total 
number, then follows Germany with 8.48 per cent, and lastly Austria 
with 6.14 per cent. This does not, as has been said before, include the 
so-called free lances who attend these higher seats of learnini;- only for 
a time and who, being without jiroper preparation, can not matriculate, 
hence can not be counted as students by the officers of the institutions. 
They have, as a matter of self- evidence, most of the privileges of the 
students by becoming the private students of renowned professors, 
have access to the libraries, laboratories, experimental stations, and 
other accessories which are open to those Avho can pay the fees. In 
Germany it is the mining academies which are, comparatively, attended 
most frequently by foreigners (32.4 per cent), and the veterinary schools 
are attended least by foreigners (1.53 per cent). The proportion of for- 
eigners in German universities has risen from 5.16 per cent in the year 
1880 to 8,48 per cent in 1895. In Austria the school of agriculture in 
Vienna has the greatest proportion of foreigners, namely, 7.66 per cent, 
while the polytechnica have only 3.1 per cent. In Switzerland univer- 
sities and the polytechuical school are attended by foreigners at about 
an equal ratio. 

We give the tables iu full as found in the Academische Eevue« 



182 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 









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EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 



183 



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184 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 




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EDUCATION IN CENTRAL EUROPE. 



185 







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CHAPTER V. 
MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 



Contents. — Introduction. — Opinion of T. W. Surette. — Historical review of singing 
in German schools. — Present state of metliod in Germany.— Selection of matter for 
singing. — Methods of instruction in the United States. — Methods of iustrnction in 
Germany. — Value of folk songs in school. — List of German iioets and compos- 
ers. — Literature: German books on theory and method. — German song collec- 
tions. 

INTRODUCTION. 

The study of musie in the schools of this country is attractiug special 
attention among teachers, especially since the department of music of 
the National Education Association has been makiug inquiries into the 
history and methods of this branch of study. The situation is rather 
emphatically stated in an article in The Citizen (June, 1896) by Prof. 
T. W. Surette. The author asks: 

WHAT PART SHOULD iVIUSIC HAVE IX EDUCATION? 

Looking at the present condition of music in America— taking the country as a 
whole — one is struck by the fact that in spite of our great progress there does not 
yet exist any real relation between music and life. By this I mean that we have 
not yet apprehended what music really is; it appeals to most of us only as an inno- 
cent sort of amusement, and the idea of giving it any place in education and think- 
ing of it as a potent factor in civilization, is only in its infancy. 

It seems timely, therefore, to say a word as to what may be done in the way of 
Ijringiug music more closely to people, so that a better use may bo made of its great 
power as an educational factor, and to show wherein that power lies; to explain, as 
far as may be, just what the relation is betAveen music and life, aud how it may 
reach us and help us. 

It is not difficult to understand why music is universal. It antedates laugnage. 
It is the cry, in its infancy nothing but a wild chant of joy or sorrow, analogous 
to the cry of animals; afterward the rude song of victory or the wail of death; 
then the fisherman's song, the reaper's, the soldier's— each giving expression to those 
feelings for which speech is inadequate; without art, but true to nature. Through 
all these stages of civilization it has been increasing its power of expression, keep- 
in"- pace with the widening range of human activity, with the spread of knowledge, 
"•rowing as naturally as a tree grows, having a form as beautiful and well ordered 
as any form nature has molded. Where once it expressed the emotions of rude 
peoples, it now has come to be the voice of our highest aspirations, to x>icture for us 
what we should, without it, never see. As Carlyle puts it, " It takes us to the edge 
of the iUiinito and lets us for moments gaze into that." 

187 



188 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 

It is the language of tlio emotious; in its highest expression it gives yon the 
v'ery essence of beauty. Take the Heroic Symphonj^, for example. If yon under- 
stand it, j'ou get from hearing it a picture more vivid and real than any verljal 
description could be of that turbid, litful, solitary, and tragic thing which is the life 
of a great man. No words can convey to you as this music does the heroism, 
beauty, and love which are there. The inevitable and onward marching fate, the 
very ideal of it all — its essence — is perfectly expressed by the music. Words are 
but symbols through which the ideas and emotiohs try to find vent; music is their 
natural and real voice. Every other medium gives them to you at secondhand. 

But of what ijractical use is all this? you say. What relafciou between music and 
life have you established by this statement of what music is? How does it affect 
morals or conduct? 

It all depends on your point of view. If you think education consists in knowing 
facts; if your idea of a thorough preparation for life is a knowledge of geometry, 
history, and the other things usually learned in school and college, then you will 
not agree with rae that music should find a place in our scheme of education. Music 
will not make two cabbages grow where there was only one before; it will not sat- 
isfy you as a good dinner will; it will not give you the consolation to be derived 
from a spring bonnet. 

But if education is tliat sweetening of life which comes from happy surroundings, 
from a home where only the most refined influences gather; if it is the broadening 
of your mind and heart from love of nature, from observation, from experience; if 
it is the growth in your soul of the love of beauty ; in short, if it is all those things 
which tend to make you a better man aud a better citizen, then music is a serious, 
a logical, and a powerful factor in it. 

I don't 8ui)pose any argument is necessary to prove the influence on character of 
great poetry, painting, or sculpture. What I desire to show is how much more active 
the influence of music is; how thoroughly wholesome, and how easily obtained. 

There is a whole side of our nature which is left tintouched by the ordinary affairs 
of life, and you find men who have devoted themselves to business exclusively, or 
ta the pursuit of knowledge in one form or another, in whom the jierception of 
beauty, with all the inspiration which comes from it, is alinost totally inactive. It 
is perhaps a rather extreme case, but an interesting one, which Darwin's life pre- 
sents. He says in his autobiography that up to the time he was 30 he derived great 
pleasure from Milton, Byron, Wordsworth, and Shelley; that Shakespeare gave 
him intense delight, and that he was fond of music; but in later life he could not 
endure to read a line of poetry; Shakespeare nauseated him, and he had entirely 
lost his taste for music. 

"My mind," he says, "seems to have become a kind of machine for grinding general 
laws out of large collections of facts. If I had to live my life over again I would 
have made a rule to read some poetry and listen to some music at least once a week; 
for perhaps the part of my brain now atrophied would thus have been kept active 
through use. The loss of these tastes is a loss of happiness, and may possibly be 
injurious to the intellect, and more probably to the moral character, by enfeebling 
the emotional part of our nature." 

This is, perhaps, too negative an illustration to carry conviction with it; but a 
positive expression of what the eftect would be if one were to hear music continually 
is a little difficult. You can not measure such things by the rule of three. A tape 
measure is not of much use in estimating the beauty of the Venus of Milo, but there 
is no doubt that we are moved to the depths of our natures by the visions which we 
are vouchsafed by great music. When we are educated to listen to it, it touches us 
as nothing else can. For this reason, as well as because it is a so much more common 
factor in life than painting or sculpture — so much more easily obtained — I believe it 
should be an active influence in education. 

For you may reasonably hope to do more with an art which appeals to the mass of 
the people than with one in which only a few are interested. In addition,. there is 



MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 189 

this further point: The influeiuo of music is witliout taiut; it does not give you 
immorality uudcr the guise of art. 

But you may say that music is fast becoming all that it is claimed it should be. 
We have our seasons of opera, our great orchestras ; we crowd to the recitals of a 
famous pianist, and from one end of the country to the other thousands of people 
are engaged in teaching music; every country village has its half dozen prol'essors, 
and altogether it seems as if wo were really making music .1 factor in education. 
And there is no doubt whatever that we have advanced very much in the last twenty- 
five years; we have passed through the stage when Monastery Bells was a classic. 
But there is one fundamental difBculty with it all; we are on the wrong track. We 
are not making music a logical factor in education ; we do not study it, nor under- 
stand it in a logical way ; we do not even look on it as possessing the quality of 
logic, and we take it, or tolerate it, as a harmless kind of amusement. There is no 
doubt, for example, that in our church services, where it plays so important a part, 
it is simply tolerated by many people, even by some of the clergy. The names of 
the men who have written great church music are, in many cases, entirely unknown. 
As a consequence of this ignorance, a great part of our church music is vapid, not 
to say irreligious, and it rarely appeals to you as an integral part of the worship. 

Of course, if it is to be the factor in education which we have here jiroclaimed it, 
it must possess the qualities of greatness. To be great an art must be capable of 
quickening the imagination; it must present beauty which compels you in spite of 
yourself; it must give you a consistent, logical, and satisfying picture; it must have 
a physiognomy, a plan, a consistent purjjose throughout. Everything great has 
these qualities, this organic nature. Without it nothing can exist, neither an insti- 
tution, nor an art, nor the human body. 

Furthermore, it will be conceded that some understanding of this organic nature 
is necessary if we are to derive great good from the thing which possesses it, and, in 
the case of music, the conditions which surround it as an art are so peculiar that an 
iinderstanding of its organism is absolutely necessary. A symphony possesses to an 
eminent degree the qualities I have enumerated as essential to a great piece of art, 
and, to a less degrep, the same thing may be said of all music. 

A moment's thought about the manner in which our impressions from music are 
received, however, will convince anyone that order and balance are absolutely essen- 
tial to it. A piece of music which lasted ten or fifteen minutes, in which those 
qualities were absent, would be meaningless to everyone. The very nature of a 
musical phrase demands its repetition in some form or another in order to have con- 
tinuity; otherwise it would not remain in the memory. In a symphony or sonata 
the themes are changed, thrown into new lights, dismembered, enlarged, treated in 
a dozen different ways, not unlike the manner in which ideas are developed in a 
sermon, or characters in a book or play. But it is all done in the ten or iifteen min- 
iates, and when it is over you have only a faint notion of a tune here and there and 
of a hopeless noise which has seemed confusing and meaningless. 

Most persons who have never studied music in a system.atic way are incapable of 
recognizing a theme when it is changed, however slightly. Consequently, when they 
listen to a piece of music, they are like a person who enters a theater in the middle 
of a play and who has no programme and does not know what it is all about. 

These qualities, then, which distinguish great music, which are essential to its 
greatness, must be apprehended by us — we must be instructed in its form and manner 
of speech; then it will educate us. 

Wo must take it out of the place it now occupies as a parlor accomplishment, or 
as the pleasure of the passing hour, and study it understandingly. Our chief aim 
should be appreciation of the masterjjieces of the art. 

» * * # * « # 

University extension suggests a right method of dealing with this music question. 
If we can get our audiences to see the value of a musical education, and how much 



190 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. 

that is good and wliolesome may le 'broviglit into tlieir lives and tLo lives of tlieir 
children by cultivating the musical faculty with vshich they are endowed, Ave shall 
have carried out the legitimate function of university extension. 

If our colleges, besides teaching harmony and counterpoint to a few students, 
would have courses in analysis in which the form and structure of music is explained, 
and the pieces i)erformed so that an intelligent understanding of them were possible, 
the amount of real education to be derived from the music courses would be incal- 
culably increased. As they now stand, they occupy no vital relation to the college 
life and work. 

If we can convince the jieople that there is more in music than mere pleasure; if 
we can make them see that their children may all have something of its blessings iu 
their lives; if wo can substitute for or join with the conventional music lesson a 
study of musical form, an understanding of the way musical ideas are presented, we 
shall be in a fair way to make music a factor iu education. 

Music having been raised to the highest degree of perfection by the 
Germans, it wouhl seem proper to inquire into the methods of teaching 
employed iu the schools of that country. This inquiry will naturally 
first turn to the history of musical education. The best statement on 
this point is found to have been published by Dr. Johannes Plew, pro- 
fessor in the lyceum in Strasburg, Alsace, Germany. Some results 
of his i^rofound historical researches, as well as those of Prof. J. Helm, 
of Schwabach, are translated here in introducing a sketch of matter 
and method of musical instruction. 

HISTORY OF SINGING IN GERMAN SCHOOLS, 

In the school of the Middle Ages singing was, next to Latin, the most 
important branch. The reason of this is found in the fact that teachers 
and scholars were servants of the church. The church demanded of 
its servant, the school, that it prepare its pupils fur singing during 
religious services. How generally this was regarded one of the chief 
objects of the entire instruction may be seen from the fact that Pope 
Gregory I, who is considered the founder of church music, is also revered 
as the patron saint of the school in Catholic countries. But since the 
services of teachers and pupils were required several times a day, and 
also occasionally in civil life, it was not always possible to let the whole 
school xiarticipate ; and since not all voices were suited for figurate 
counterpoint, differentiation and selection took xdace, which resulted in 
the establishment of permanent choirs, variously called "chancery 
currende" or "symphouiaci." These choirs were recruited chiefly from 
iudigent but highly talented students. In payment of their services as 
choristers they received free tuition and board. A source of private 
income was offered to singers by i^erforming at all kinds of festive occa- 
sions in private houses. Instrumental music was not known. People 
even danced to the accompaniment of songs. 

The importance given to the instruction in singing in school had, 
however, another reason — one that is often overlooked nowadays. It 
is that music belonged to the liberal arts, and that no student could 
acquire the degree Artiura Magister (A. M.) unless he had mastered the 



MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 191 

art of vocal music. It Avas the general opinion that no one could be a 
good theologian or a teacher without being a trained musician. Hence 
musical knowledge and skill became a "conditio sine qua uon" for 
appointment. All through the sixteenth century this opinion prevailed. 

The great division in the church during that century affected music 
least of all the liberal arts, and if it be remembered that two of the 
greatest musical compositions known, namely, Bach's High Mass and 
Groll's Mass in sixteen part music,^ that is, two masses for Catholic 
church service, were composed by Protestants during the eighteenth 
and nineteenth centuries, it maybe claimed that the great schism never 
actually affected the musical domain. Luther, as is well known, desired 
that Catholic church music be retained in the Protestant churches, and 
hence we see that the compositions of the old masters kept their promi- 
nent i^laco in school till far into the nineteenth century. According to 
school, regulations in forc©^ in 1559, the pupils sang in church "The 
< Magnificat,' a hymn corresponding to the pure divine scriptures, a 
'responsorium;' on Sundays and minor festivals a 'kyrie eleison,' and 
on higli festivals a Christian 'sequence' (sic) or '• gradual.'" 

Luther also utilized school singing as an essential agency in intro- 
ducing chorus singing of church congregations. School singing was 
not only intended to prepare for participation iu congregational sing- 
ing, but also to prepare the choirs for fignratc counterpoint, and for 
leading the chorus, for the organ as an accompanying instrument came 
into use much later. 

Music was not only required for Protestant church service, but for 
the religious instruction of children it was found indispensable, since 
hymns and other church music awakened veneration of God in the 
hearts of the young. Luther, making the school the most important 
pface, next to the church, for the teaching of the Gospel, considered 
school-singing the highest and most elevating expression of filial piety. 
"School," he said, "shall be the means to promote the art of music 
and through it the true recognition of God, the Creator and Saviour." 
Heijce, because music had an effect similar to that of theology, as he 
thought, he gave to musical exercises a place next to religious instruc- 
tion. If thus it would appear that Luther valued music only for its 
religious effect, we have evidence of his valuing it as important for 
education in general, and in this he was quite in harmony with the 
views of former times. Numerous expressions of his in confirmation 
of this might be quoted. Two will suffice: 

To keep music in school is a necessity and yonth should bo kept practicing this 
art, for it makes skillful, genteel people of them. A schoolmaster must be able to 
sing,, or I would not recognize him. 

Music is a disciplining mistress that makes people gentle, tender-hearted, sweet- 
mannered, and rational. 

1 A composition in which soprano, alto, tenor, and bass are each subdivided into 
four-part music. 



192 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 

The methods of teacliiiig thus far Lad tended more toward stunting 
than developing tlie mind. Not a trace in tiie schools of that time can 
be found where instruction conformed to the laws of growth. During 
the century marked by the thirty years' war all promising germs of 
popular education and good tendencies toward the cultivation of the 
people declined. With the close of the war (1G48) the desire to live 
and to attend to education and culture returned. According to the 
scliool regulations of this period, the teachiiig of singing was compul- 
sory. The most important pedagogical theorist of the seventeenth 
century, Johanu Amos Comenius, includes singing in his course of 
study. In the eighteenth century, the Pietists made school instruction 
ill music successful. Their laying stress upon individual feeling led 
to individualism in all teaching. They had a singular abhorrence to 
wholesale or class instruction, and hence studied and influenced each 
individual pupil. This had its effect upon music in their s*-hools; 
songs adapted for individual feeling, arias, and melodies received the 
most attention. 

Methods of teaching greatly improved in the eighteenth century. 
The dull, mechanical singing by rote was set aside in a regular system 
of instruction. Normal' schools, though inefficient and imperfect as 
they were at the time, included singing among their studies, and en- 
deavored to make excellent singing masters of their students. In the 
appointment of teachers musical ability was taken into consideration. 
The relatively best standard was attained by the institute of August 
Hermann Francke (1C33 to 1727). Boys and girls received two hours' 
instruction a week in vocal music. That for the girls was limited to 
the practice of common hymns, while the principles of flgurate counter- 
point -were taught in the boys' schools. Instruction in counterpoint 
began with the singing of the diatonic scale represented by letters 
on the lines, and followed by the chromatic scale and exercises in 
intervals. The technical exercises were connected with the singing of 
familiar melodies from notes which were followed by such new melodies 
as required similar notes for their expression in writing. Pupils were 
also taught pauses, tempo, and the different values of notes. The more 
advanced classes rendered religious airs of two parts in f and f time. 

Increased attention was given to singing also in other parts of Ger- 
many during the eighteenth century. The school regulations of Hesse- 
Darmstadt (1733), Brunswick (1753), and Prussia (1794) are explicit on 
this subject. Singing was also advocated by Eochow (1734-1805), who 
urged special attention to church music. Eousseau makes his "Elmile" 
cultivate a "pure, even, flexible, pleasing voice," and an ear for harmony 
and time. A systematic course of musical instruction was likewise 
pursued in the schools of the Philanthropinists, followers, and apostles 
of Kousseau in Germany, as in the schools of the Austrian reformer, 
Ignatius von Felbiger (1724-1788). That these well-intended attempts 
toward improving instruction in singing brought about few results (for 



MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 195 

it must be candidly admitted tfiat at tlie close of the eigliteentli cen- 
tury vocal music generally was below par) only proves bow difficult it 
is to carry thought and honest efforts into effect, even when they are 
accredited true and just. 

The most important epoch in the history of the development of instruc- 
tion in singiug dates from the time of Johann Heiurich Pestalozzi 
(174G-1827). Pestalozzi maintained that elementary education " should 
develop and perfect the inborn talents and powers of the human being — 
that is to say, the talents and powers of the mind, the heart, and the 
baud." For elementary education to attain this end, "observation 
(Anschauung) must be considered the absolute foundation of knowl- 
edge." By "Anschauung" Pestalozzi understands "the cognizance of 
external objects directly by means of the senses, and the consequent 
action of consciousness through the impressions received." As a mat- 
ter of course, instances of the visible occur oftenest. Still the "simple 
presentation of sounds to the ear and the action of consciousness result- 
ing from the imi)ression received through the sense of hearing is just 
as much perception for the child as the perception of objects through 
the eyes." 

Likewise, in advancing and originating the proposition, "from per- 
ception to idea," Pestalozzi maintained induction to be the only method 
conformable to the natural laws of development of a child's mind, and 
turned the course of instruction into exactly the oppowsite direction 
from that hitherto pursued. With the inductive method a new and 
broad field was opened to the teaching of singing. The increased 
interest awakened by Pestalozzi for enabling and educating the young 
in Germany benefited instruction in vocal music, too. School authori- 
ties paid greater attention to singing and how it was taught, and pro- 
vided for a better musical education of elementary teachers. The best 
and most prominent men of the nation commended the art of singing 
as one of the most effective means for cultivation and education. That 
precious pearl of German life, the "folks' song," which had been forced 
into the background by church music, gained in importance and was 
looked upon as a valuable object of study. School authorities devoted 
more minute attention to vocal music in their plans of organization; 
the most imi)ortant, however, was the development of a literature on 
the art of singing and its methods of instruction, which in a compara- 
tively short time made such progress as to promise a rational system 
of instruction for even the most insignificant village school. 

The earliest production of this literature is the Art of Teaching 
Singing, by Pfeififer and IsTaegeli. Pestalozzi himself thus commented 
on this work : "There is promise in this work of excellent and welcome 
results for the educator and musician alike." These expectations were 
not realized, principally because Pfeififer and Naegeli, as well as 
Pestalozzi, saw in music only an accomplishment easily acquired, if 
one had learned a little arithmetic and to measure. This narrow view 
ED 90 7 



194 ' EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 

of tlie essence of music led to an t)vervaluation of rhythm and a 
depreciation of melody and harmony. 

The Art of Teaching Singing, by Naegeli, is synthetic thronghout. 
The first part, ^'Elementary work," is in two divisions, general and &\)G- 
cial theory of music. The first division treats of the duration, pitch, 
and strength of tones, the combination of these three elements, and 
the written characters for tones. Each new chapter is preceded by a 
thorough review of the iirecediug one. The second division, the spe- 
cial theory, treats of the methodical combination of text and melody. 
Single vowels, then syllables, words, and finally connected sentences, 
are set to tones and combinations of tones. Meter, breathing, analysis 
of text, etc., are taught in connection with the foregoing exercises. 

Written especially for i)eople's schools, it was just in these schools 
that it could not be used. As excellent as are its details — the chapter 
in notation, for instance, is valuable for all times — as a whole it is too 
comprehensive. Its methodic arrangement, moreover, contradicts Pes- 
talozzi's " principle of sense-perception," particularly in that the beauti- 
ful in art in its perfection is withheld from the pupil until he has learned 
all its forms. Ehythm, dynamics, and melodies are, as the words 
betray, not objects perceived directly through the senses, but results 
of thought; in other words, abstracts derived from the i>roduction of 
music. A sufficient number of examples of melody and harmony should 
be presented for direct sense-perception before the discussion of scales, 
keys, strengtli, pitch, and the like is admissible. 

Thus the merits of IsTaegeli narrowed down to the deep reflections 
which he aroused on the methods to be employed in teaching. 

The demand for a method of instruction in singing which retained 
what had been approved in the works of Naegeli, and which covered 
their deficiencies by better and more practical suggestions, was met by 
B. C. L. ISTatorp in his instructions for the teaching of singing. Natorp 
also presents his exercises in rhythm, melody, and dynamics separately; 
and his exercises in rhythm and dynamics are, on the w^hole, similar to 
I^aegeli's; in everything else he and ISTaegeli diifer essentially. The 
latter begins at once with theoretical instruction, whereas Natorp pref- 
aces every lesson with introductory exercises, confined wholly to sing- 
ing by ear. Beginning with single vowels, and proceeding to syllables 
and words, these i^reparatory exercises were always to be used with 
accompanying text, so as to insure a i)ure, distinct enunciation, and a 
natural and easy intonation. Texts and combinations of tones should 
be taken from what comes within the compass of a child's life. Children, 
in this way, acquire an amount of musical material by experience that 
forms the foundation for a later knowledge of the elements of music. 
They have sung and heard many " thirds," before they are required to 
form the idea of a "third;" and often perceived two and three part 
music through the senses, before they are expected to distinguish the 
difference clearly and distinctly. 



MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 195 

Auotlier advantage is that Natorp, unlike Naegeli, does not conclude 
tlie subject of rhythm before proceeding to melodj^, and so on. He grades 
the different exercises proceeding from the first grade of rhythm to the 
first grade of melody, and from this to the first grade of dynamics. 
With melody, I?}"atori) for the first time introduces the tones of the 
major chord for understanding and i)ractice, first \rithout, then with 
regard to rhythmic order. The other tones of the diatonic major scale 
follow the tones of the major chord. From here on the instruction con- 
sists altogether of practice. Nothing is offered but sougs which con- 
tain elements that have been explained and practiced during the 
preceding lessons. Natorp uses dynamic exercises in combination 
with other elements, or in special lessons combined with melody. He 
uses ciphers as written characters instead of the customary notes. 

x^atorp's book is obscure on the iisychological relation between the 
systematic or technical exercises and the songs and melodies learned. 
Nevertheless, the work met with general approval. For several decades 
it, together with Naegeli's "Art of Teaching," was considered authori- 
tative on the teaching of singing; it molded the literature on the sub- 
ject. The many text-books that appeared in the second and third 
decades incline either to Natorj) or Naegeli. x\ll deal with their sub- 
ject synthetically; none proceeded from songs to study by way of 
analysis, in order to arrive at the elements of melody, rhythm, and 
dynamics. 

Educators in Germany continued to interest themselves in methods 
of singing during the years from 1840 to 1850. Ernst Hentschel 
(musical director and teacher of the normal school in Weissenfels) 
brought about the next and most effectual measures for further improve- 
ment. He found fault that ''in some schools i^upils scarcely get as far 
as singing songs and hymns, being constantly kejot at exercises in 
pitch, tempo, and note reading, etc. In many other schools singing of 
cheerful melodies was x^ersisted in to the utter neglect of the formal 
end to be gained." Hentschel maintained that "the elementary course 
should combine technical exercises with singing of melodies, for both 
are imx>ortant. Both should be taught during the entire school course. 
During the first two years, however, the pupils should slug by rote 
only; after that they should be taught altogether from notes." He 
urged that young children had enough difficulties in mastering the 
symbols of reading (letters) and arithmetic (ciphers). An 8-year old 
child might begin another set of symbols, the musical notes. 

Hentschel's claims were soon admitted, and received full considera- 
tion in the " Course of study in singing for x^eople's schools " by Fried- 
rich Wilhelm Schuetze. He proceeded from the fundamental thought 
that " a child first receives the imi)ression of an object in its entirety; 
after which it ana.lyzes its individuality and examines the different 
parts severally." " Musical education, therefore, progresses conform- 
ably to natural law, if, as soon as sound becomes perceptible to a child, 



196 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 

repeated single tones, a succession of tones, sounds in rliytlimic form, 
or, as sliould oftenest be tlie case, real musical comi)Ositions are pre- 
sented to it, and it is thus first of all brought into contact with the 
world of sound." Consequently, " children must first become familiar 
with musical language in learning to sing by ear," and " subsequently 
in singing fiom written characters." 

The valuation set by Hentschel upon songs as essential material for 
instruction in the theory, which valuation has remained unchanged to 
the x)resent day, created the demand for suitable collections of songs. 
This demand was speedily supplied, and continues to act as a stimulus 
to composers. Though it is a lasting honor for Hentschel to have 
assigned the proper place for songs in the course for people's or ele- 
mentary schools, and to have pointed out their educational value, it is 
still claimed that the complete banishment of the technical exercises 
from the primary school is a mistake, because it breaks the uniform 
connection of instruction. During the last ten years authorities in the 
method of singing, almost without exception, have decided upon the 
union of both. Hentschel himself modified his first opinion. As a 
rule songs are so combined with the elementarj^ exercises that a greater 
or smaller number of exercises are directly supplemented by songs and 
hymns, the melodic and rhythmic construction of which embodies the 
elements of the preceding exercises. The only difference is that some 
lay the greater stress on the exercises, while others attach greater 
importance to the songs, to which the technical exercises are consid- 
ered secondary. This naturally depends upon the musical education 
of the individual teacher. 

To the text-books which make songs the living center of instruction 
belongs among others the "Theoretical and practical singing school,'' 
by Johann Rudolph Weber. This book advocates that the teaching of 
singing should be nothing more than "instruction which helps pupils 
on to songs." "The singing of songs and technical instruction in sing- 
ing should be combined and support each other." " In every grade, the 
essential material of the organic (elementary) exercises consists of the 
elements of songs to be i)racticed and learned by heart, because to tbese 
as an entity in art the exercises are most easily applied." "Instruction 
must show the pupil how to perceive and recognize sounds severally in 
regard to time, tone, and volume." All the material for singing must 
be made " elementary." The simplest element, rhythm, forms the begin- 
ning. In connection with melodies the pupil becomes acquainted with 
major and minor chords, the chord of the dominant seventh, as well as 
with the foundation of all melodies, the major scales. 

Departing from custom, J. G. F. Pflueger has adopted an analytic- 
synthetic method in his "Introduction to the teaching of singing in 
schools." After several introductory exercises, consisting of children's 
songs, the text and melody of which must be learned by ear, he develops 
the theory for the holding of tones, for pitch and volume, and the ideas 



MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 197 

of scales, time, cliords, aud i)auses; liis lessons ou notes, intervals, and 
the most familiar major and minor scales are directly connected with, 
the preceding songs and hymns. 

Pflneger advocates the method of indnction, proceeding from simple 
tones and combinations of tones to the chief elements of mnsic. 

A warm interest is being shown at present in singing and in the 
instruction of vocal mnsic. A number of practical educators are 
assiduous in their efforts so to plan instruction in singing in people's 
schools that it must lead to faA'orable results. Psychology and peda- 
gogy suggest the principles for the perfection of methods. 

(1) Instruction in singing must not be isolated; by moans of song texts it must 
bo kej)t in touch "with, other subjects. 

(2) The concrete material for instruction in singing in sacrctl and national hymns 
and those peculiarly popular songs which in Germany for a long period of years 
have j)roved to be a real production of art. 

(3) All technical exercises should proceed from songs and lead back to them; the 
elements for comparison in the process of abstraction should be taken from the melo- 
dies practiced. 

(4) Symbols of tones, bo they notes, ciijhcrs, or letters, should bo nothing more to 
the pupil than visible signs and forms for the special sensations of sounds. The eye 
should only support the ear. 

PRESENT STATE OF METHOD IN GERMANY. 

Dr. G. A. Lindner, in his Cyclopedia of Education, sketches the 
present state of method in teaching school singing in Germany. His 
sketch is here presented in translation : 

In modern times instruction in singing has become an integral part of the course 
of study in common schools, because it is generally recognized that it forms the taste, 
ennobles the emotions, and proves to be also a good means of discipline, since it 
concentrates the attention and forms a means "which will unite many into a com- 
munity. The object of this instruction is to awaken a sense of melody, to promote 
the ajsthotic and emotional training of children, aud to stimulate patriotism. 

In singingwe recognize three elements : (1) the melodic, which refers to the pitch of 
tone; (2) the rhythmic, which refers to the duration of tone; (3) the dynamic, which 
refers to the strength and volume of tone and also to correct exjiression. Melody 
gives life to the song, rhythm gives regularity, and expression causes impression. 
These three elements must be considered by the singing teacher. It will not do, of 
course, to treat the one element exclusively until all necessary information is given 
and then take up the next, but the essentials of each of the three elements are to be 
given, which are then followed by more difficult work; but whatever song is taken 
up, it is first the melodic, then the rhythmic, and, lastly, the dynamic element which 
must be considered. In other words, first the melody is taught, then the proper 
time, and, lastly, the expression by means of variations in the volume of tone. For 
the common school the melody is not only the most essential, but almost the exclus- 
ive element, for tempo and expression are subject to individual preferences and 
emotional conditions. 

Concerning the method and the course of study for lessons in singing in the public 
schools, the following points may be considered to have found gcnci'al approbation 
in Germany. During the first two years of school, singing is practiced by rote. The 
chief object here is the development of the voice aud the musical oar; later on 
Instruction is based ujiou the foundation of reading music. It is generally conceded 



198 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-9G. 

best to confiue tlio cliildren'3 knowledge to ouo key, making- tlie Do movable as occa- 
sion requires. In German sehools a number of popular songs of interest to cliildreu, 
both with reference to text and melody, are firmly memorized and frequently prac- 
ticed. Above all, it has been found necessary to begin the singing of pleasant, catchy 
airs quite early, so that the musical ear bo trained, and since Germans, as a rule, are 
very musical, it is found that mothers and nurse girls vrork hand in hand with the 
school teacher. 

A second and higher stop in the singing lessons is singing from notes. The piipil 
is introduced into the laws and symbols of the art of music. A song which he has 
learned by rote is analyzed into its elements, and the elements thus obtained are 
reduced to the scale, sharps and flats are introduced, and the various keys developed. 
Instruction in singing from notes should not be neglected, because the subsequent 
musical training of the pupil makes it very desirable that he have knowledge of 
music. Methodical instruction in singing by means of which the pupil obtains a 
clear consciousness of the intervals, time, etc., is notx)ossible without the ability to 
read music. Moreover, in practicing songs of two, three, and four parts, it would 
be exceedingly tedious to learn the several parts by car only, since the accompany- 
ing parts rarely carry melody, and thus will allure those who cannot read music to 
sing the treble "unisono." The success of any instruction in singing, however, lies 
not in the skillful reading of music, but in the production of melody ; in other words, 
not in the notes, but in the tones. It is therefore very essential that the teacher 
should sing, or that he play a musical instrument, and thus make his pupils hear the 
tones which they are to sing. 

In the lower grades of the school the greatest simplicity is the greatest art. In 
the selection of songs much care, taste, and tact are required. Cheerful, joyous 
songs are to bo preferred, especially when they have some reference to nature and 
the seasons; also patriotic songs, and airs which exi^ress general human sentiments, 
such as popular airs. In the selection of these songs the scoije of the voices of 
children must be considered. In schools where music is read, the various symbols 
or signatures are to be considered in class before the melody of the song is taken 
up. In order to secure iirmness and skill in singing, songs that have been learned 
should be frequently practiced in class, especially if they are sung in two or three 
parts, because the musical ear, while very faithful to melody, is less efficient in 
retaining accompaniments. 

The ISTational Teacliers' Association of Germany, in its meeting of 
1879, i)assed a number of resolutions, a declaration of principles, as 
it were, concerning tlie instruction in music in tlie elementary schools. 
These theses deserve to be translated and reproduced here, since they 
express the theory and method followed generally in German schools. 

(1) School should educate and instruct for life; hence for the instruction in music 
the same principle should prevail. 

(2) School instruction in singing should, first of all, nurse German popular songs 
(Volksliederj. 

(3) Artistic results can not bo expected and must not be demanded, but an aspira- 
tion for musical perfection should be awakened in the i^upils. 

(4) No songs should bo taught and practiced which are not of undoubted poetic 
and musical value. 

(5) In the teaching of even the simplest poijular song the object must be to express 
that which poet and composer intended. The technique is not to be an aim but a 
means. 

(«' (6) Music is not only to create pleasure in melody and harmony, but must have an 
ennobling efl'eot iipon the heart. 

'f' (7) Pedagogical treatment in music lessons presujiposes a teacher who is profes- 
sionally prepared and skilled in the art of music. 



MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 199 

(8) Tlie education of tlie Germau nation by means of music and throu<>li music 
has a national significance. 

(9) Singing should bo taught in every school, not in lessons after school hours, 
but during school sessions. 

(10) Instruction in singing should be given with the aid of a musical instrument, 
be that the violin, jjiano, or organ, and such instruction can bo successful only "when 
the teacher is well trained in the use of his instrument. 

(11) Every normal school should have an experienced singing teacher, who has 
been well trained both in music and pedagogy, is acquainted with the methods of 
comi)osition, and understands the value of popular airs and hymns. 

(12) It is the duty of school authorities to see to it that in every schoolhouse at 
least one teacher be engaged who is trained in music. 

(13) No pupil shall be excused from taking part in singing lessons. 

(14) Exercises in reading music should be a part of every singing lesson all 
through the course. 

(15) As to the matter of instruction, jiopular airs (Volkslieder) and hjinns should 
be preferred in elementary schools. 

(16) Only such songs should be practiced whose texts express noble, refining sen- 
timents. The texts must bo brought to the comprehension of the pupils before 
they are memorized. 

(17) Punishment should rarely bo administered during singing lessons, corporal 
punishment never. 

(18) Lessons in singing are most suitably reserved for the last hour of the forenoon 
or afternoon, since they servo as recreation after severe mental work. 

SELECTION AND ARRANGEMENT OF MATTER. 

Mr. J. Helm, of Scliwabach, Bavaria, Germany, au antliority on 
school singing and mctliods of teacliing, says •witli reference to tlie 
proper selection of songs tliat it is defined by tlie educational signifi- 
cance of singing and also by tlie position it occupies within the system 
of education. A translation of his opinion on this subject seems 
desirable, and is here inserted: 

The beautiful is the sister of the good. The contcmxilation of the beautiful awak- 
ens a feeling of satisfaction similar to the contemplation of the good. ^Esthetic 
enjoyments elevate and idealize ; they belong to the highest pleasures of life. Though 
moral education is the highest of all human education, the cultivation of taste 
and artistic schooling are by no means suxierfluous. Occupation with art refines the 
mind, ennobles the emotions, and makes the individual more sensitive to the highest, 
which is moral beauty. Within the wide compass of art, music, next to jioetrj', can 
be brought within easy reach, of tho young, and within the extensive domain of 
music nothing is better adapted for class instruction than singing. The combina- 
tions of tones which instruction in singing presents to the ear excite involuntary 
pleasure in the pupil, and offer him elements for his ideas of the beautiful. 

Singing delights the human heart and enlivens and animates the emotions. It is 
the language of feeling, the expression for pleasure and sorrow. There is no purer 
or more productive source of pleasure, and no nobler or more beautiful form of 
expression for the feelings than song. Singing combines melodic, dynamic, rhyth- 
mic, and text elements in such perfect symmetry, and so smooths contradictions and 
restraints by harmonic combinations that nothing else can provoke greater aesthetic 
pleasure. If technically correct relations and combinations of tones are often brought 
to bear upon tho i^upil's mind, more agreaable feelings will predominate to the prob- 
able development of a bright and cheerful disposition. The latter factor, however, 
is one of tho most important presuppositions for the development of the interest and 



200 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 

the education of the Avill. Singing and. the art of music sliould therefore not be 
Tvithheld from the young. 

However great the pedagogical value of instruction in singing may he estimated, 
it can not he admitted that it follows musical laws exclusively, or satisfies its own 
demands alone. Consideration for the general aim of educational factors makes it 
necessary for instruction in singing to heej) in touch with other studies. Its texts 
malic tliis possible. Instruction can bo purely musical only with reference to melody, 
rhythm, and dynamics, Avhile with reference to the text it must consult the sentiments 
expressed as well as the special claims of school life. Where this rule is observed, 
the songs to be practiced are adapted to feelings and moods of the pupils awakened 
by preceding lessons. They are then received with more interest, sung with greater 
feeling, and a deeper meaning is attached to their study. A lasting disposition of 
mind can be awakened by instruction only when the subject treated, to which inter- 
est is attached, is of such a nature that it appears of value not only to the child but 
also to the adult. 

The greatest attention must therefore be paid to the selection of texts. Only such 
songs should be chosen in Avhich text and melody are fosthetic, and have been proved 
to be productions of true poetical and musical art. Moreover, texts and melodies 
should be in proportioned relation to individuality of mind and vocal organ ; other- 
wise songs can never become flesh and blood, so to speak; or, as the psychologist 
has it, can never be apperceived by children. 

If these claims are justifie^l, the elementary schools must abandon all attempts at 
presenting and studying complicated works, as well as songs of four parts, as they 
are above the capacity of the pupils. They must also set aside all songs specially 
composed and set to music for "school purposes," because they are seldom poetic in 
thought or musical in form, and, as a rule, rarely meet the requirements of a noble 
art. Moralizing songs must likewise be omitted, since they never originate in a 
healthy, strong, or vigorous sensibility, and therefore soon become distasteful to 
children. The source upon which instruction for people's schools should draw, can 
and must be no other than the national song, sacred or profane (secular). 

"National songs are irreproachable music of God's grace; their author and con- 
tents are everywhere and at all times the same — the nation itself and the spirit of 
national life embodied in song. Whatever events excite national feeling, whatever 
affects the heart of the people, or is treasured in its mind in thoughtful moods, forms 
the inexhaustible contents of its songs and life."— (A. B. Marx.) The architecture of 
the national song is so transparent and so simple, the glorified deeds and events cele- 
brated appear so plastic to the eye in their poetic garb, that it seems highly adapted 
to a child's perception; it is besides an inexhaustible spring of aesthetic and moral 
pleasure, truly classic in form and content, and never losing its magnetic force and 
its vivifying and refreshing charm for the mind. 

Only those national songs (which term includes some of oiar church hymns) should 
be accepted as suitable for elementary schools which in the course of time have been 
permanently approi>riatcd by the people, and have entered abidingly into mind and 
heart. 

The sacred church hymn must be sung and studied in its original form, which is 
rhythmic. Melody, rhythm, and text are the essential elements of every song, and 
can not be separated without offending a cultivated ear. They exert a beneficial 
influence on taste and excite aesthetic pleasure only when they cooperate and leave 
the impression of mutTiality. The movement and complexity of the rhythmic hymn 
is conformable to musical law, and therefore uniform; the restfulness and sameness 
of the hymn without meter and proper tempo end in a monotony calculated neither 
to thrill nor to animate. The hymn without rhythm dates from the time in which 
the life of the church and religious feeling had degenerated, and therefore can never 
be considered the result of a healthy, historical development. It is the consequence 
of religious indifterence, and an idle self-relinquishment. That the rhythmic hymn 
is not above the ability and comprehension of the pupils in elementary schools is 



MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 201 

sufficiently proved by the fact that many of oui- national songs^ as tlicy are sung ia 
Bcliools, display as great a diversity in rhythmic forms and as much interchange of 
accentuated and quantitative rhythm as the rhythmic hymn. The fact that church 
congregations in a large part of the Empire observe the rules of rhythm in their 
singing goes to prove that no insurmoiiutable obstacle prevents its adoption in the 
course of school singing. 

Material for instruction iu singing may be divided into the poetical and the musi- 
cal. The poetical half, the texts of songs, should be derived from object and lan- 
guage lessons. These studies should be so arranged that before a child begins to 
learn the singing of a song it has already become acquainted -n'ith the form and con- 
tents of the text. AVhere instruction iu singing has not received this consideration, 
it must analyze the text. A systematic acquisition of the text by the mind of tho 
pupils — not mere thoughtless memorizing — must under all circumstances be insisted 
upon. Neither iu language nor in singing lessons should an incomprehensible jumblo 
of mere -words be jiermitted. 

The chief duty of instruction in singing is to give out the melody, and in such a 
way that the pupils not only understand it, but are capable of repeating it with 
technical correctness. Involuntary pleasure on the part of the pu^iil created by the 
melody is to be developed gradually to a>sthetic jileasuro based upon comprehension. 
This is possible only when the pupils are made to understand tho technique of music 
in an elementary way. Hence it will not suffice to teach by rote songs of one and 
two parts, but the elements of melodies, dynamics, and rhythm must be taught, 
supijlemented, perhaj)s, by the barest elements of harmony. 

DETAILS OF THE AMERICAN METHOD OF TEACHING SINGING. 

Before the very successful mode of teaching singing iu German 
schools is presented in detail it may be well to quote an American 
opinion on this subject. Dr. Edward Brooks, superintendent of public 
schools of Philadelphia, in a special report to the board of education 
of that city described the methods in vogue in America. This report, 
by showing how singing is taught in some cities, incidentally bears 
witness to the advanced state of method in this country. The author 
says: 

Two distinct systems of reading vocal music have been current among musicians 
and have divided the judgment of the musical world. These two systems have each 
intelligent and earnest advocates, and it is therefore necessary to compare their 
merits and reach a conclusion as to which one is best suited to the work of the 
elementary schools. 

The method of staff intervals.— The old system, which may be called the Italian 
system, taught singers to read music by the intervals of the staff, somewhat as in 
playing an instrument. Tho intervals between the lines and spaces iu the natural 
key were learned and readily applied to music written iu this key. In the different 
keys the intervals were determined by the flats and sharps of the signature, and 
these intervals were sung without regard to the key in which tho music was written. 
Music was conceived as made up, not of scale intervals, but of a succession of tones 
without any relation to the tonic of the scale iu which tho music was Avritten. That 
the method presented great difficulties is shown by the fact that comparatively few 
persons taught by this method ever became ready readers of music by sight. Most 
of them required tho use of an instrument to learn new pieces, and many singers 
read music through the instrument which they played, imagining how it would 
Bound upon the instrument. In this system, when the syllables do, re, mi, etc., 
were used, these syllables were fixed for tho natural key and remained stationary 
throughout all the dil'ferent keys, the system being known as that of the "fixed do." 
ED 9G 7* 



202 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1895-98. 

Tliis system lias Ijeen advocated by mauy of tLo leadiug musiciaus of tliis couutry 
and of Europe. This advocacy is not unnatural or surprising, as most of these musi- 
cians arc instrumentalists, and the instrumentalist does not necessarily think of Lis 
scale or key note; ho sees the noto and touches the key or string which corresponds 
to it on his instrument, sharping or flatting in accordance Avith the signature of the 
key. He plays, or may play, entirely unconscious of scale relations, thinking only, 
of the note on the staff or upon his instrument. It is entirely natural, therefore, 
that he should regard a method of singing hy means of a movable scale as unneces- 
sary and inconvenient. Especially if the syllables do, re, mi, etc., are used, does it 
seem to him not only inconvenient but absurd to change the position of these sylla- 
bles for the different keys in -svhich the music may bo written. 

This system of singing by staff or tone intervals is the one that has been generally 
used by those v-'ho train to artistic singing. The object in this instruction is not 
"sight singing," but vocal culture and the artistic use of the voice. Such singers 
are seldom ready readers of music; they depend on the instrument to give them the 
tune, their aim being the beautiful and artistic rendering of the music. Even the 
great singers like Patti are said to be very poor or indifferent readers of music, their 
dej)endence being upon the instrument in learning a new score. These facts demand 
cur attention, so that the popularity of this method among so many eminent musi- 
cians may bo clearly understood and jiroperly estimated. The advocates of the 
method are largely instrumentalists and have not been interested in sight reading 
of a vocal score; or, when they were teachers of singing, the object was not to make 
independent readers of music, but artistic performers. Their views ujion the subject 
are thus not only natural, but, under the circumstances, entirely reasonable. 

The method of scale intenmls. — The second method of reading music is that of scale 
intervals and the movable scale. This method does not think of musical sounds as 
intervals ur)on the staff or as abstract tone intervals, but as degrees of the scale in 
their relation to one another and to the tonic. The scale is regarded as a musical 
unit of thought, and each tone is considered or conceived in relation to this unit. 
The mind thus thinks music through scale relations, conceiving a tone as the second, 
third, fourth, etc., of the scale. The course of instruction begins with drilling the 
pupil upon the major scale of eight notes until he has mastered it and its intervals. 
These intervals are learned in relation to the fundamental note of the scale as well 
as in relation to one another. Having mastered this scale, which is purely a vocal 
exercise, the pupil is taught how to represent it on the staff" in what is called the 
natural key. He is then drilled in reading by the degrees of the scale until he can 
tell at a glance the jiosition in the scale which any note upon the staff' indicates. 
Knowing the sound of the different tones of the scale, ho can then readily read any 
score of the major scale in the natural key set before him. 

He is then taught the use of flats and sharps and drilled upon the simpler inter- 
vals of the chromatic scale. The nest step is to show how these flats and sharps, 
placed upon certain degrees of the staff, give a scale beginning on some other degree 
of the staff than C. For example, ho learns that with the signature of JP sharp the 
scale starts on G, with the signature of I'' sharp and C sharp the scale begins on D, etc. 
He is then drilled upon reading in the different keys, naming successively the degree 
of the scale indicated by the notes, reckoning from the location of the tonic, precisely 
as ho did in the natural key of C. 

In all this work he reads and sings not by staff' intervals or tonic relations, but by 
scale intervals. In looking at a new score he looks at the signature, determines the 
place of the keynote or tonic, and counts the degree of the scale from that place of 
the keynote. He docs not think of F sharp or B flat, etc., but of the degree of the 
scale which the noto represents. Thus in the first two or three measures of "Home, 
sweet home," no matter in what key it may bo written, his thought would be one, 
three, four, six, fire, three, five, four, three, four, two, three; or if he uses the syllables 
Vv'hich arc often employed to designate the degrees of the scale, he thinks do, mi, fa, 
la, sol, mi, sol, fa, mi, fa, re, 7ni, 



MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 203 

This method, it ■srill ho seen, is eutirely different from tliat of toue or staff reha- 
tions; it is based npon tho musical scale and conceives of tho different notes of the 
melody in their relations to the scale. If tho syllables do, re, mi, etc., are used, do 
is always tho first of tho scale, mi the third, sol tho fifth, etc. If tlie scale begins on 
C, then a note on C is called do; if the scale begins on F, as in the key of one flat, 
then a note on -Fis called do, a note on A is called mi, etc. The do thus naming the 
first degree of tho scale is moved with the movable scale, from which tho system has 
been called that of tho "'movable do." 

The difference between the two methods may be illustrated by the reading of the 
following exercise: 




By the method of scale relations and tho movable scale this would be read as 
follows; One-three | five-three ] four-six | five || five-six | four-seven | two-one j 
five II five-one j seven-four j three-two | one || . 

By the method of tonic or staff relations one would think and read as follows : Eb-Cr, 
a major 3d j Bb, a minor 3d-G, a minor 3d | Ah, a minor 2d-C, a major 3d | Bi,, a major 
2d I Bb-C, a major 2d | Ab, a minor 3d-Db, an extended -Ith | F, aminor3d-Eb, a major 
2d I Bb, a 4th || Bb-Eb, a 5th | D, a minor 2d-Ab, a diminished 5th | G, a minor 2d-F, 
a major 2d | Eb, a major 2d jj . 

I have merely named tho intervals between successive notes, without indicating 
whether they are ascending or descending. It will be noticed that in reading by 
tho method of tonic intervals one must distinguish between major and minor sec- 
onds, major and minor thirds, perfect, augmented, and diminished fourths; perfect, 
augmented, and diminished fifths, etc., a thing not difficult for tho accomplished 
musician Avho is familiar with an instrument, but exceedingly difficult for the ordi- 
nary reader of vocal scoi'cs. By the method of scale relations these intervals pre- 
sent no difficulties to tho singer. 

The method of the movable scale, as stated above, is usuallj- known as that of the 
"movable do." This name does not characterize it fully, however, as tho method of 
scale relations may bo employed without the use of the syllables do, re, mi, in which 
case of course there is no do to be moved. While it is believed that there are advan- 
tages in using these syllables "trith beginners to indicate the different degrees of the 
scale, yet many good teachers of the method of scale relations use other syllables, as 
la or ta, for all the degrees of the scale. The essential nature of tho method is not 
indicated by the use of the syllables ; it consists in the conception of sounds in 
respect to their relations to the scale, this scale being moved on the staff" as indi- 
cated by the signature of the key in which the music is written. 

These two methods have been and to a limited extent are still competitive for 
public favor. While both have strong and intelligent advocates, the tide of opin- 
ion is now setting strongly in favor of the "movable scale" system. This is the 
method that is generally used in the elementary schools of Switzerland and Ger- 
many. In Franco the same sj^stem is gaining ground under the name of tho Cheve 
method, which is so well represented in this city by Professor Zobanaky. In England 
the old system was found so difficult that in order to simiilify the work of popular 
musical instruction they dropped not only tho staff" relations but tho staff" itself, 
giving rise to Mr. Curwen's method, known as the "tonic sol-fa s^vstem." Tho 
method of tho movable scale was introduced into the United States largely through 
tho influence of Dr. Lowell Mason, one of the most accomplished Pcstalozzian 
instructors that this country has produced. The widespread introduction of musical 
instruction in the public schools of the United States is largely an inheritance from 
and an outgrowth of tho labors of Dr. Lowell Mason. 

The tonic sol-fa method. — In this discussion a passing word should be said in respect 



204 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 

to tlic touic sol-fa system. This metliod originated ■with a Miss Glover, of Norwich, 
England, but is generally credited to Rev. John Curwen, through -whose influence it 
has been so widely introduced. The method is based on scale relations, and there- 
fore in pure musical conception agrees with the method of scale relations already 
described. It differs in the representation of music to the oyc, introducing aa 
entirely different notation from the one in general use. This notation is simple and 
readily learned by the pupil; and it is this simplicity, especially as contrasted with 
the method of intervals, which has given it so large a degree of popularity. The 
objection to the method is that it does uot present a universal musical language or 
onethat can ever become universal. Modern instrumental music would be impossible 
by this system. A person when taught to sing by this method must afterwards learn 
the generally accepted notation, or be restricted to a very limited number of musical 
compositions. The present mode of writing music has been accepted by the musi- 
cians of every country; and a person taught only by the tonic sol-fa method would 
be unable to read the simplest score Avritten in the common notation. The method 
is, however, extensively used in England and Canada, and is widelj" recommended 
and strongly indorsed by some of the leading musicians and educators of both 
Europe and America. It is especially commended as an introduction to the staff 
notation. This reference to the method is not designed as a recommendation of its 
introduction into the elementary schools, but is merely given because in the discus- 
sion of systems this is too conspicuous not to receive a passing notice. Even if it 
were thought best to use it in teaching the elements of music to little children, it 
should be regarded merely as a stepping-stone to the generally accepted system of 
musical notation. 

In the introduction of music into the public schools of the city it is necessary to 
decide upon the merits of the two principal systems described and to determine 
which one should be adopted. My own judgment, based on a wide observation and 
the experience of several years in early life in teaching music, is strongly biased in 
favor of the method of scale relations and the movable scale. Children, even those 
who have not much natural ability for music, can be readily taught by this method 
to read music by sight. The other method presents far greater difficulties to the 
learner, and is entirely unsatisfactory for use in the elementary schools. The argu- 
ments in favor of the method of scale relations and the movable scale seem to me to be 
conclusive. The method is simple and logical and in accordance with the esseutial 
principles of the art of music. The unit of the system is the scale, which is the 
foundation of all musical compositions. Each tone of the scale has its relation to 
the tonic and should bo so conceived. "When the key is changed, and thus the posi- 
tion of the scale upon the staff is changed, the relations of the tones to the keynote 
arc always the same; the scale is simply started from another pitch indicated by 
another degree of the staff. Furthermore, all work in harmony is based on the scale 
rather than the staff relations ; the chord of the tonic, the dominant, the subdomi- 
nant, etc., are all conceived in scale relations as these expressions indicate. Indeed, 
it seems almost impossible for anyone to have an intelligent idea of either melody or 
harmony without thinking of them in their relations to the musical scale. 

The foregoing description of Dr. Brooks is inserted because it will 
aid us in understanding the subsequent statement by Prof. J. Helm of 
the details of the method in vogue in elementary schools in Germany, 
which is offered in translation: 

DETAILS OP THE GERMAN METHOD OF TEACHING SINGING. 

It will be generally conceded that teaching singing in school has a double purpose 
in view, the acquisition of a number of songs and knowledge of the elements of 
music. In regard to the place songs are to occupy in the method, ojjinions differ as 
much as they do in regard to the understanding and presentation of the relation 



MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 205 

"whicli eleiTientary tecLuical exercises are to maiutaia to the songs. However, one 
thing seems to be decided. For the xmrposo of imparting knowledge of the musical 
system, anthorities on the method of singing have during the last ten years decided 
uj)on the organic combijatiou of exercises v.ith songs. As a rule this combination 
is effected by connecting a number of elementary exercises from the beginning -with 
songs and hymns in the melodic and rhythmic construction of which the elements 
of the preceding exercises are applied. A difference of opinion exists in that some 
lay the greater stress on the elementary exercises to precede the song, while others 
give the preference to songs as a starting point. Pflueger and Eeissmann propose a. 
different method. They suggest that the technical exercises depend entirely upon 
the elements of music found in the songs. Anything of musical notation, etc., not 
found in the songs presented to the children should not be taught. " Climb the hill 
■when you get to it." Dornstedt maintains that as botanical knowledge is gained 
by the observation of single plants and parts of plants, geographical knowledge by 
the observation of the earth, by the study of relief maps and flat-surfaced maps and 
api^aratus, .and a knowledge of language by the study of classic extracts in prose 
and verse, so all musical knowledge should be gained from the study of songs and 
their notation. All technical exercises should be derived from simple songs and their 
analysis into the melodic and rhythmic elements. Eegard for the iiupils' interest 
alone can decide the method. 

A tone in itself is no more calculated to arouse a child's interest than a separate 
letter or single sound. Pleasure is involuntarily excited by a natural, and, at the 
same time, technical combination of tones only. The compass of musical thought, 
too, is enlarged only by combinations of tones. The musical judgment of the pupil, 
in other words, his comprehension of the musical system, should be developed by 
the study of combinations of tones .T»sthetical in every sense. Interest is aroused 
by the concrete; the abstract in itself is not interesting. Consequently, the ele- 
ments of melody, dynamics, rhythm, and probably musical notation are of direct 
interest to the pui^il only when they rest upon a concrete foundation of songs. For 
this reason the technical course should depend upon songs, and with a few incidental 
exceptions, the systematic instruction of singing should ever proceed from songs 
and lead back to them. 

Though detached from the melody the technical exercise may reduce the elements 
of songs to single tones and intervals, they yet apjiear to the pupil as parts of a 
whole which it has learned to like. It is this which assures the interest and atten- 
tion of children. The objection can not be made that an "analytic consideration" 
of a song robs it of poetic form and artistic character, as the song itself is not the 
object of systematic instruction, but is only used as a starting point and to furnish 
rhythmic and tonic elements. Truly systematic instruction can only be given after 
the pupil has learned a number of songs ; singing in elementary schools should there- 
fore begin with songs. The only question is whether G and 7 year old children are 
capable of comprehending and reproducing easy songs without having practiced 
preparatory exercises. I believe that experience has found it to be so. Children 2 
and 3 years of ago are able to rei^eat short songs, which they hear at home, quite 
correctly with reference to tone and rhythm. And what the family and kindergarten 
can accomplish is certainly possible in the lower classes of elementary schools. It 
stands to reason that great versatility and thoroughness can not be required of 
children. The very name of the "elementary" school precludes that. 

A child knows the difference among a hundred trees and shrubs before it ia 
expected to distinguish typical leaf forms. The first is in reality easier, although a 
tree is far more complex than a leaf. It is much more difficult for the uncultivated 
ear of a child to detect intervals when they are isolated than when they occur in 
the phrases of a song. The clearness of any idea, and hence that of a distinct idea 
of sound, depends not only upon the light and distinctness which the idea itself pos- 
sesses, but also upon that which it receives from combinations with and relations to 
other ideas that throw light on it from many sides. Thus a pupil is more easily 



206 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1895-98. 

impressed Avitli tlie methodic succession of tones in a cliord -when it is studied as a 
part of a phrase in song than when it is presented as a separate chord. It Avould 
not ho impossihlo to hegin the teaching of singing in elementary schools, and con- 
tinue it corrclativcly T\ith the suhsequent technical course in such a way that 
the separate exercises may prei)are for the reading and singing of ue%v songs, and 
these again apply to those exercise^ from which the technical work of musical 
instruction must he ahstracted or derived. 

Hearing is the sense of music. The deaf are incapalde of musical education. 
Ideas of music can not he gained through any other sense than that of hearing; hut 
as the idea of an ohject becomes clearer and livelier in the mind it can ho more 
easily retained if the ohject has been presented to the mind simultaneously, or in 
direct sequence, through more than one sense; thus other organs of sense arc a helii 
to the ear; in other words, impressions of sound are clearer and more easily repro- 
duced when comhined with other impressions. This is the psychological Tcason for 
using characters to represent sound in the teaching of singing, motions of the hand 
and other gestures to indicate height or depth of tone, intervals, etc. It necessarily 
follows that the symbols used, be they figures, letters, or notes, can be no more than 
visible signs for definite sensations of sound. The eye can only support the car, 
never take its place. 

As with all objects of ideation, so with music. AYe distinguish between ideas 
belonging to immediate knowledge and originated by perception through the sense 
of hearing and ideas that form a part of mediate knowledge and are originated by 
reason. Symbols are required for both kinds of musical ideas. The ideas gained 
by immediate perception and apprehension are defined in the genesis of sensations 
of sound. 

The matter for hearing is sound, in the same sense that color is a m.atter for sight. 
Every sound is produced by the impulse and vibrations of elastic bodies. These 
impulses and vibrations are communicated first to the air surrounding the oscillating 
bodies; their motion to and fro displaces the particles of air, thus causing conden- 
sation on the one side and rarefaction or expansion on the other. Thus the stratum 
of air surrounding the vibrating body alternately condenses and expands, producing 
a wave-like motion which extends to all sides. If these waves reach the tympanum 
of the ear they impart to it, to the air confined in the drum, and to the four small 
bones their vibrating motion, which continues to the labyrinth and the nerve fibers 
of the cortical organ. This causes an excitement of the nerves which, as soon as it 
is iierceived by the mind, is recognized as a sensation of sound. If the vibrations 
of the elastic body and the air waves have been regular— that is, repeated in equal 
periods of time and in the same manner — wo call the sensation a musical sound. 
Every impression of sound bears an adequate relation to the air waves by which it 
was produced. Consequently, there are just as many kinds of sensations of sound as 
there are kinds of air waves. According to present investigations, the nerve fibers 
of the ear seem to possess in groups a limited specific sensibility for similarlylimited 
groups of sound waves. The diftering in groups of this sensibility of the nerve 
fibers of the oar has, as a consequence, that every tone quality is actually represented 
to us simultaneously by a sum of qnantitively similar sensations Avhich collectively 
are apprehended only as a more forcible single concept. But if two kinds of sound 
or air waves strike the car, they produce two sensations of difterent cxuality, which at 
first, like other sensations simultaneously presented, leave a single impression; 
subsequently, however, when the mind has developed sufficiently for discerning 
between them, the distinction affords a criterion for farther judgment. If we try 
to reduce the qualities of sound, like those of color, in a comprehensive scheme, all 
noises, namely, those sensations of sound Avhich arc produced by irregular vibrations 
and are capable of no qualitative fixation and comparison, must be omitted. 

Every sound sensation, called musical tone, progresses in two opposite directions. 
If we continue this progression for any great length, wo have a straight line that 
extends infinitely in both directions, but in which every sensation of sound, by 



MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 207 

reason of its quality, lias a distinct place; that is to say, is assigned to a definite 
height or dejith. This line should really he conceived as a continuity "vrithout break 
or demarcation of single iioiuts. Still, in the scale empirically presented, wo find 
single points separated and defined hy special names. These jioints — absolute tones — 
form the elements of our musical system. They are likewise the foundation of all 
empiric musical knowledge. 

Though we are not able so to perceive and retain all of the sensations of sound 
unlimited in both directions of the lino as to recognize in them a part of immediate 
knowledge, it certainlj' is possible to make clear to our consciousness the above- 
mentioned points of the lino, when they are presented again and again at the same 
height. After a little practice, wo can easily perceive them, and do not confuse 
them with other sensations. We easily succeed in this, if we call upon the eye 
to help the ear, and if we fix the marked points of the series of sensations of sound 
in the scales in writing. A definite sensation of sound and a definite sensation of 
sight are, then, associated; but it is always presupposed, as a most essential condi- 
tion, that the tone which is fixed by a special name and symbol must invariably bo 
presented at the same height. If this is tho case, these tones, in which wo see the 
elements of the musical system and the perceivable material for practical music, 
gradually become more clearlj^ distinct from the combinations and series of sound 
sensations. If this were not the case, sound sensations would not be qualified to 
form rcsthetic relations. The firmly established and finelj^ articulated contrasts of 
tone qualities specially adapt sensations of sound for such relations. 

If several sensations of sound are jiroduced simultaneously by dissimilar sound 
waves or in such quick succession that we arc still conscious of the preceding sensa- 
tion when the next one is perceived, there arises a complex idea of sound, Avhich is 
presented to consciousness as a concrete relation as soon as tho mind has been suffi- 
ciently exercised in making distinctions to be able to recognize single tones as 
members of a relation. Every concrete relation is an object of perception, a unit of 
its kind, strikingly individual, and can only be represented by sj^mbols in fixation 
of its members. In the apprehension of the elements of our musical system and all 
concrete sound relations, the miu'd can be supported by written characters only, i. e., 
by musical script. 

Tho presentation of absolute tones and concrete relations of tones and exercise in 
their apprehension sharpen the hearing and acquaint the pupil with the diversity of 
musical material. An insight into the inner connection of this material and musical 
ideas, laws, and rules can only be gained by comparing absolute tones and concrete 
relations, and by abstracting what is common to include it in higher unities. To 
these higher unities belong tho ideas of scales and keys, and particularly the ideas of 
intervals, as seconds, thirds, fourths, fifths, etc. As the ideas of scales and keys are 
formed by comparing single phrases Avith regard to their material and accomi^anying 
concrete tone relations, we gain the ideas of difi'crent intervals as they occur in any 
scale, and by comparing tho intervals of dilTerent scales wo retain what is common 
to them, namely, the uniform distance of tones (intervals) among all scales. Like 
any other material of thought, these higher unities can be retained by fixation in 
language only. They are named, and thus a common understanding is established 
concerning them. We then get names for both the tones and their symbols. 

Absolute tones and concrete relations are best represented by notes, because they 
arc used exclusively in practical music ; but intervals and abstract relations by fig- 
ures, because figures are familiar to the pupil and express the rise and fall iDeeuliar 
to tone relations. The fact that it is difficult to comprehend absolute tones, because 
of their limited individuality, so as to reproduce them exactly, is no sufficient reason 
to omit symbols of tones from instruction in singing, and to use only the symbols of 
intervals. 

The ability to comprehend a comTunation of tones does not imply the ability to 
reproduce it. It is easily possible to understand a series of tones i^erfectly without 
being able to reproduce them. We are able to recognize them again, however, and 



208 EDUCATION EEPORT, 1895-96. 

cau tell witli certainty whether they have heeii heard in the same or another key. 
How else could we speak of character in reference to keys, or he differently affected 
hy hearing an adagio played in A (natural) which is familiar to us in A flat? 

The ability to reproduce presupposes more than the correct understanding of what 
has been heard. It is, moreover, dependent upon the anatomical and x^hysiological 
construction of the voice, which is not at all essential for musical comprehension. 
The gift of understanding combinations of tone is much more frequent, and is gen- 
erally found in a higher degree than the ability of musical reproduction. It is in 
the nature of instruction in singing to require both accomplishments of the pupil. 
There will be greater and more pleasing success if the ear be supported by the eye, 
sensations of sound by tlieir symbols, and if the ear bo continuously exercised in 
perceiving not only what is general, but what is distinctive in tone relations, i. e., 
the height and depth of their members. 

Any writing of symbols of intervals represents what is distinctive in concrete 
relations of the same kind, and therefore does not exercise the car in the apprehen- 
sion and distinction of different keys. Ideas of intervals can only bo gained by 
hearing absolute tones. They fix only what is general to concrete combinations, 
namely, abstract ideas of sound. The characters receive sense and meaning by the 
ear's perceiving a succession of absolute tones; that is to say, of any one of the dia- 
tonic scales to the parts of which the letters or figures refer. A system of instruc- 
tion which fixes in writing musical ideas, wholly notional, acquaints the pupil with 
the unity of the musical system before he has learned its concrete elements. " The 
psychological medium that should lead to the heights of perception is overleaped," 
and this results at last in a weakening if not in a complete stunting of musical sen- 
sibility. For this reason no symbols of intervals can replace notes, though they may 
contribute to the advancement and thoroiighness of musical education if they follow 
the learning of the customary notation, or supplement it. 

The matter of which instruction in singing treats belongs to mediate and partly 
to immediate knowledge. With the latter the inductive method should be followed ; 
hence the elements of mediate knowledge must be derived from the immediate. If 
the combinations and relations of tones belonging to immediate knowledge include 
what is abstract thought (definition, law, or theory), then the development and fixa- 
tion in the memory of this abstract element must directly follow upon the presenta- 
tion and fixation of the knowledge gained concretely. The presentation and learn- 
ing of concrete relations and combinations, and the development and learning of 
musical ideas and laws, become in this way a series of school occupations which 
are in harmony with the inherently connected psychological processes of perception 
and conception, apperception, abstraction, and secure retention of what is general. 
From this it follows that the laws of intellectual growth require instruction in sing- 
ing to adhere to the formal steps of analysis and synthesis, association, system, and 
application. 

Analysis is divided into the analysis of text and musical analysis. Analysis of 
text must precede musical analysis, so that the pupil may imbibe the poetic spirit of 
the song at the very beginning of the lesson. If the text be familiar to the pupils, a 
short review will suffice. If not, the form and contents must be studied. In this 
case, analysis consists in the reproduction of those concepts and ideas which are 
related to the song text, so that when the new text is given out correlative thoughts 
are fresh in the mind of the pupil, and it need not be feared that its apperception is 
hampered by distractions and contradictions. 

Musical analysis aims at enabling the pupil to comprehend and reproduce the new 
melody; to reproduce the rhythmic and melodic elements already familiar, in so far 
as they are found to exist in the new melody, and may be freshened in the pupil's 
mind. Musical analysis does not consist in a reproduction of previously studied 
matter, but it refers in a special manner to that knowledge already acquired which 
is suggested by the new subject. As soon as the pupils are acquainted with scales 
and the chord of three, analytic exercises should commence. The tones of the 



MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS 209 

diatonic scale aud of tLo tonic triad (in tho same key, of conrse, as the new song) must 
bo so combined that tho melodic turns and phrases which tho song contains aro 
heard in the analytic exercises. Tho chief tactic motive of the song to bo learned 
must be the foundation for tho rhythming of scales and triads. Musical analysis 
necessarily presupj)oses a certain development of musical thought. During the first 
year of the school course it is therefore impossible to any desirable extent. Under- 
standing of aud feeling for what is uovel are only conceivable whou there is a resi- 
due of apperception material in the mind. But as most newly entered x^upils have 
verj' few or uo musical ideas new concepts must bo developed from correct percep- 
tions and sensations, although aids to apperception can uot be readily supplied, 
because relative as well as opposing conceiits are wanting. 

So long as instruction iu singing has not develoiied tho most important elements of 
musical knowledge — the ideas of scales, keys, measure, time, etc. — musical analysis 
must be confined to reviewing previously practiced songs of similar tempo, which 
begin and cud with the same tone and include similar series of tones. A recapitula- 
tion of all that the pupil knows of the laws of tones, of musical construction, enun- 
ciation, accentuation, and notation belongs to analysis, iu so far as it is important 
in connection witb what is to be learned, and only for so long as the pupil is not sure 
of applying his knowledge. 

Synthetic instruction is modified and ruled by the pupil's advancemeut and tho 
subject to be considered. If the text is uew, form aud contents must be studied and 
learned by heart. The melody must be then practiced, aud tho other stanzas of the 
text learned. It is of great iuiiiortance that the new melody bo presented pure, 
uamcly, without the mixture of alien elements. The teacher must render it correctly 
and as finished as possible, either by voice or on au instrumeut. Pupils are then 
involuntarily pleased, the new melody enters their minds, and is appreciated with 
jjroper sentiments. The more beautiful and perfect the song at first appears, tho 
more earnestly will the pupil strive to learn it. If the new melody is short and 
simple, so that tho children are still conscious of the first tones while the last are 
perceived, then, for a deeper a-sthetic effect, the whole should be at once presented 
to tho ear. Practice, however, must always follow the law of successive clearness, 
line by line. The iiresentatiou aud practice of new melodies must continue in tho 
prescribed manner until the pupils are familiar witb the written music. After that, 
new means of imparting must be resorted to out of consideration for the pupil's 
self-activity. The melody is then presented to the eye in writing, aud the pupils, 
under their teacher's direction, must convey the meaning of the notes, line by line, 
in corresponding tones aud successions of tones or phrases. 

After having learned tho melody, the pupil's attention is directed to the time or 
rhythmic construction. While the teacher or different jiupils sing the others observe 
whether au accented be followed by one or two unaccented tones, or whether the 
different tones of a phrase have the same value or uot. After some thoroughness in 
this has been attained, the pupils may begin to reproduce the melody iu writing, 
under the teacher's direction. 

Synthesis concludes with the writing of the melody aud the study of the text. 
In tho first, probably iu tho second, school year, during which periods the foundation 
of musical knowledge is laid, tho study of melodies can not successfully be carried 
beyond synthesis. But from the moment in which the eye supports tho ear, or nota- 
tion is made use of, tho teacher may go beyond synthesis. Is it necessary, however? 

It has been said that involuntary pleasure can only develop into .esthetic, rational 
pleasure after the pupil has an insight into the musical system, and that therefore 
instruction can not rest with the practice pf a number of songs, but must acquaint 
the pupil with the elements of melody, rhythm and dynamics, etc. These elements 
are the fouudatiou ; they have the force of musical laws of general value and neces- 
sity iu tho world of sound. Tho concrete includes this pleasure; but it is clearly 
and distinctly defined by cousciousuess only when separated from the concrete, or 
what is accidental aud individual. It receives a -'general value "only after it has 



210 EDUCATION REPOET, 1895-96. 

proved to be the same always ia concrete comLiuatious of tones, or after it is found 
to lie a common attribute of relations of tone. 

Tlio next step in instruction is to compare tlie concrete tones bitherto practiced, or 
tbe i)brases of the songs learned (step of association). The combinations of tones 
submitted for comparison can be taken eitber from tbe last or earlier syutbetic 
exercises or from airs learned at borne. In any case, only sucb series of tones sbould 
be compared with wbicb tbe pupils are familiar. Comjiarisons may follow in differ- 
ent directions and may extend to melodic succession, rbytbmic form, strength, 
temj)o quality, etc. Tbo results of tbeso comparisons are lixed in projier tecbnical 
language. 

AVbatever bas proved to bo common or general value in tbo step of association 
must be isolated and learned in tbe shortest and most concise form — be it an idea, as 
key or time, or a law, such as '' every measure bas tbe same value," or "a word must 
not bo torn asunder by taking breath." This work forms the next step, that of 
systematizing or generalizing. 

Although, in general, it must be maintained that musical ideas and rules, like all 
that is abstract, cau only be derived from the concrete, now and then, for the par- 
pose of rounding off knowledge, a new idea may bo presented, when ideas of 
similar origin are discussed, which may "absorb or apperceive"a new but relative 
idea. Thus, for instance, the idea of A major may be suggested if the pupils have 
in the conrseof their exercises met with those of C, G, F, D, and B major and abstracted 
the general law. 

What tbo jiupil has found common to all lessons he may note in a separate book. 
In this way he writes a kind of ''singing school" for himself. 

As the different parts of synthesis can be treated with a regular insertion of correl- 
ative analytic material, so a definite part of the step of systematizing can be directly 
anticipated by concrete associate material; in other words, every lesson in singing 
and technical exercise can be followed by an abstraction of its salient j)oints and 
general facts. 

Thus, if, by way of examj)le, the newly learned song be compared with one pre- 
viously studied in regard to quality of tone, what is fouud to be common may at 
once be defined in a statement, as, "Both songs are in the key of G;" or "Both 
songs have f measure;" or "Both are to be snug allegro," etc. Several songs 
being compared, this statement may follow: "All these songs begin and end with 
C, hence ai'o written in tbe key of C." The comparison is continued, and inter- 
rupted by a process of abstraction. Thus, by induction, and according to tbe laws 
of intellectual development, the pupils become possessed of many fundamental 
musical ideas, laws, and rules. This knowledge would be w^orth little if the ele- 
ments of music could only be applied to that concrete material from which they 
■were derived. If, for instance, tbe key, kind of key, measure, and time could only 
be applied to those melodies -wbich formed the stock of the puiiil's knowledge of 
songs, tbo musical education would be sadly deficient. The pupils must, therefore, 
be dii'ected and i>racticed in observing and reading other combinations and melodies, 
and apx)lying the rules and laws to new phrases and songs. Reading easy melodies 
and "second parts" must be aimed at. This work forms the last of tbe formal steps — 
that of application. If these exercises are extensively practiced during the last 
year of school, the pupil will be able to tell with tolerable certainty the signature 
of a new iiiece, whether it be major or minor, the kind of meter or tempo, etc., and 
he W'ill, slowly perhaps, but correctly, read the scries of tones, i. e., read the notes 
while singing; ho will also observe the rules of breathing, voice culture, and enun- 
ciation in songs on which be has received no special instruction. The exercises in 
application also include tbe transposition of a melody from one key to another; 
transcription of a phrase in the different symbols for notes and intervals; the sing- 
ing of different texts to the same melody; the reproduction of scales, ascending and 
descending, and using tones as the tonic; the singing of the tones of the triad and 



MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 211 

its inversion, etc. This is a comprcliensive iirogrammc of v.-orli, but German tcacli- 
ers succeed in carrying it on in elementary schools. 

The matter gone over in the music lessons is, comparatively speaking, very insig- 
nificant. The children learn a far greater number of facts in arithmetic, geography, 
and grammar. Tho only difference is that the application of the facts learned is 
more difficult, owing to tho frequent undeveloped musical ear; hut as the sense of 
hearing is developed tho difficulties disappear. 

THE VALUE OF FOLKSONGS (VOLKSLIEDER). 

From tlie foregoing expose of the German method of teaching sing- 
ing in schools, and from other authoritative sources, it is seen that the 
Germans pay much attention to their national airs in school, both to 
sacred and secular songs. It is done upon the principle that in 
elementaiy schools it is not the chief object to increase the store of 
knowledge of the children, but to train their minds to correct modes of 
thinking, to build up their characters and will i)ower for correct action, 
to ennoble the emotions to perceive refining sentiments and guide the 
will, and to generally educate the young rather than instruct them, to 
use these terms as the Germans do in imi)lying a differentiation which 
we in this country do not usually accept. In literature, and even in 
simple language lessons, we naturally use the best selections from the 
works of classic native Avriters; in geography we direct the child's 
attention, first of all, to his home surrounding and the topographical 
conditions of his own country 5 in history it is the events and memorable 
deeds of his own forefathers and countrymen which he studies, and so 
on through the course of study. We always bear in mind that the 
civilization and culture of his own nation are the sources from which 
his own culture derives its strength. Precisely so the Germans proceed 
in the teaching of music in elementary schools. Of course, music may 
be severed from its national influence and taught purely as a science 
and an art, but if taught in that way it does not serve the purpose of a 
school study which purposes to aid in the child's mental and moral 
development. Every study in elementary school must do that. The 
reasons for using the musical treasures of the nation are pedagogical 
and ethical and eminently sound. 

The national airs of every nation reflect, more than anything else, its 
peculiar traits of character, both in text and music. The Slavic songs, 
mostly written in minor keys, reflect the melancholy mood of these 
peoples; the wild, weird ditties of Hungary reflect the fierce character 
of the Magyars; the placid temper of the Scandinavians is seen in 
their sweet hymns; the Scotch Highlander's sturdiness is noticeable in 
his songs; the gaiety of the southern Frenchman, the cheerfulness of 
the Tyrolean and the Swiss — all these peculiarities are plainly discern- 
ible in the native songs and lays of these peoples. 

The vast treasures of mind, soul, and heart of the German nation have 
from time immemorial been reflected in its folksongs, or popular melo- 
dies and rhymes, most of which were composed no one knows by whom, 



212 



EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 



but wliicli were suug by all. From the fourteenth century to the pres- 
ent day the treasures of German popular airs have been increasing. 
The German "Yolkslied" runs through the entire scale of internal and 
external life of the nation; it courses through feeling and tliinking of 
all layers of society, and it is always true to nature, always grown on 
home soil, always genuinely German. The popular airs of Germany, 
both text and melody, are the most fragrant blossoms of the civilization 
of that country. In these songs, the sources of which never clog, the 
sounds of joy and merriment are as genuine and sincere as those of 
sorrow and grief; the tones of mockerj^ and defiance as true as those 
of wrath and complaint. The heart of the German people pulsates in 
these songs, and he who studies them will find revealed in them the 
German nation in all its strength and weakness, in its virtues and 
faults. A collection of German " Volkslieder "' may be considered the 
secret history of the peox)le. He who knows history can see in these 
songs that long chain of remarkable historical deeds that have made 
Germany famous, from the " jSTibelungen Saga" down to the ^'Wacht 
am Ehein." Everywhere along the line traces are found of events and 
deeds which alternately raised and degraded the nation. 

The period in which the sources of popular airs and popular poetry 
were most i^rolific was the second half of the fifteenth century and the 
beginning of the sixteenth century (the era of Seformation). The 
dried-up court poetry of chivalry in the castles of knights and princes 
was superseded by the people's poetry; the middle ages were sung to 
their grave and a new era was welcomed. But like the ancient stories 
of classic Hellas and mythical Germany, so have the songs and airs 
changed by adapting themselves to many new moods, conditions, and 
sentiments. Most of the airs now in use were composed or remodeled 
during the second half of the eighteenth and the first half of tbe nine- 
teenth centuries. Of most of these we are able to state definitely both, 
poet and composer. A list of these is here added. 



List of Poets of German Folksongs. 



Adrian, J. V. 
Aiischiitz, Ernst. 
ArncTt, E. M. 
Arnim, Achim von. 
August, E. F. 
Baggcsen, Jens. 
Becker, Wm. G. 
Becker, N iklas. 
Binzcr, Aug. vou. 
Bornemann, Wm. 
Brcntano, Clemens. 
Bretzner, Chr Fr. 
Brun, Fricderike. 
Biihl, J. L. am. 
Burger, Gottfr. A. 
Cbamisso, Adelliert von. 



Claudhis, Matthias. 
Cramer, K. G. 
Croustein, Heuriette von. 
Dacb, Simon. 
Dirnbuck, Jacob. 
Dissclboff, August. 
Drlmborn, E. G. 
Dunker, B. A. 
Eberbard, G.A. 
Eicbendorff, Jos. von. 
Eisenbart, Job. Andr. 
Ekscblager, A. 
Falk, Job. 

Feucbtersleben, Ernst von. 
Fink, G. W. 
Fiscber, Carl. 



Franz, Agnes. 
Freiligratb, Ferdinand. 
FreseniuR, A. 
Geibel, Emanuel. 
Gellert, Cbr. F. 
Gcrbard, Wilbelm. 
Geriko, J. L. 
Gleim, J. W. L. 
Goeckiugb, L. Fr. 
Goetbe, Wolfgang von. 
Goettling, K. 
Griese, F. 
Griibel, Job. C. 
Giill, Fr. 
Habu, Carl. 
Halem, G.A. vou. 



MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 



213 



List oi<' Poets of German Folksongs — Contiuued. 



Hunckc, G. B. 

Hasclika, L. Lcop. 

Hauff, Wilbclui. 

Haug, J. C. Fr. 

Hell el, J oh. Peter. 

Heckcr, L. 

Heim, lieiur. 

Heine, Hciur. 

Hell, Tbeodor. 

Herder, J. G. von. 

HerlcssohU; Carl. 

Hermes, Job. Tbim. 

Hicmcr, Franz C. 

Hinkel, Carl. 

Hofi'iuann von Fallers- 

leben. 
Hofling, Engen. 
Holtei, Carl von. 
Holty, Ludw. C. 
Jacobi, J. G. 
Jiiger, Daniel. 
Jiinger, Fr. 
Keil, Georg. 
Kerner, Justinus. 
Kind, Friedr. 
Klcinscbmidt, E. C. 
Klesbeim, Anton von. 
Kletke, H. 
Klopstock, Fr. G. 
Kopisb, August. 
Korner, Tbeodor. 
Kosegarten, L. Th. 
Kotzebue, August. 
Kruiumacbcr, Ad. 
Kugler, Franz. 
Kubn, Gottl. J. 
Langbein, August. 
Lange, Friedr. 
Lappe, Karl. 
Lavater, Job. Kaspar. 
Lessing, Gottl. Epbr. 
Liiwe, Feodor. 
Ludwig, Fritz von. 
Maas, J. G. E. 



Mablmanu, Aug. 
Mattbison, Fr. von. 
Mctbfessel, A. 
Miller, Job. Martin. 
Morbof, Dan. G. 
Moscn, .Julius. 
Mnecbler, Carl. 
Mueller, Fr. 
Mueller, J. JI. 
Mueller, Peter. 
Mueller, Wenzel. 
Mueller, Wilbelm. 
Niinuy, J. C. 
Nesnuieller, E. 
Nicolai, Fr. 
IS'iebuscb, Karl. 
Niemann, August. 
Nostiz, G. A. E. von. 
Novalis, Fr. von Harden- 

berg. 
Opitz, Martin. 
Opitz, Moritz. 
Overbeck, Cbrist. A. 
Periuet, Joacbim. 
Pfeffel, Gottl. C. 
Praetor i us, Jobanu. 
Raimuud, Ferdinand. 
Rccke, Elisa von der. 
Reiubard, K. 
Reinick, Robert. 
Roquette, Otto. 
Rlickert, Friedr. 
Rudolpbi, Caroline von. 
Runge, Pbil. O. 
Salis, Yon. 
Salomon, Elias. 
Sauter, Sam. Fr. 
Scbenkendorf, Mas von. 
Scbiller, Fr. von. 
Scbmidt, Cbrist. 
Scbmidt, Geo. Pb. 
Scbmidt, Klamer. 
Scbneckenburger, Max. 
Scbonbutb. Otto. 



Scbreiber, Aloys. 
Scbubart, Cbr.F. D. 
Scbubartb,(?). 
Sc'bwab, Gustav. 
Seume, .Job. G. 
Seyfertb, Carl. 
Simrock, Karl. 
Smets, Wilbelm. 
Stamford, Ileinr. Wm. 
ntarkc, Gottb. W. Chr. 
1 )tein, K. 

I !teinbausen, Fr. Wm. 
iStockbausen, A. C. 
Stolbcrg, Fr. Leop.Graf zu. 
Strakerjan, Cbr. Fr. 
Straube, Karl. 
Sturm, Cbr. Cbr. 
Sturm, Julius. 
Sturm, Marcellin. 
Tenner, C. Cbrist. 
Tieck, Ludwig. 
Tiedge, Cbrist. Aug. 
Ueltzcn, Wilbem. 
LIbland, Ludwig. 
Urncr, Barbara. 
Usteri, Martin. 
Veitb, Emanuel. 
Yoigt, Friedr. 
Voss, Job. Heiurich. 
Vulpius, August. 
Wiichter, Leonbard. 
Wackernagel, Pbil. 
AVackernagel, Wm. 
Wagenseil, Cbr. Jacob. 
Wagner, Heinricb. 
AVeidling, Wilbelm. 
Wciglc, Gottlieb. 
AVeissc, Cbr. Felix. 
Wiesener, M. 
Wolf, P. Alexander. 
Wyss, Job. Rud. 
Zarnack, August. 
Zebelein, Justus Fr. 



List of Composers of German Folksongs. 

Note. — Many German '* Volkslieder '' are .adaptations, botb in text and music, of 
songs in voguo during tbo Middle Ages and tbo time of tbe "Minnesiinger/' bence 
some modern composers are credited witb baving composed tbo music and some poets 
of baving written tbe words to songs tbat bear evidences of a mucb older age; but 
tbero is no way of arriving at definite conclusions concerning tbeir origin, bence the 
names of poets and composers to wbom tbe songs are credited nowadays are men- 
tioned in tbis list. Tbero arc numerous songs of wbicb neitber jioet nor composer 
are known ; they have been collected by noted musicians, such as tbe brothers Ludwig 



214 



EDUCATION 



nnd Friedr. Erk, as Grimm collected tlio German fairy stories by listeuing to theif 
recital by jrrandmothers and villagc-sases. 



Abt, I'rauz. 
Ahlstroem, J. A. 
Albert, Heinricli. 
Andre, Anton. 
Andr»'^, Jobann. 
Arndt, E. M. 
Aiiberlen, S. G. 
Becker, Wm. Gottl. 
Beethoven, L. van. 
Beneken, Fr. B. 
Berg, ( ?) 
Berger, Ludwig. 
Bergt, August. 
Boris, Job. End. 
Beruer, F. W. 
Bornbardt, Job. H. Carl. 
Briesewitz, ( f) 
Burgwedcl, Karl von. 
Call, Leonbard von. 
Coron, Ales E. 
Dietricb, Friedricb. 
Ditters, Carl. 
Dobbelin, Karl. 
Drecbsler, Josef. 
Dliriiiger, Pbilipp J. 
Ebers, Karl Friedr. 
Eberwein, Max. 
Eidenbenz, Cbr. Gottl. 
Erk, Friedricb. 
Erk, Ludwig. 
Etzler, Karl Fr. 
T'eska, Friedr. Ernst. 
Fink, G. W. 
Fiscber, Ludwig. 
Flemmiug, Fr. F. 
Fuss, Jobaun. 
Gackstatter, J.G.D. 
Gebrickc, (?) 
Gersbacb, Jos. 
Gerstenberg, I. D. 
Gilbert, Hermann. 
Gliiser, K. L. Tr. 
Gluck, Cbr. von. 
Gliick, Friedricb. 



Grauu, Karl H. 

Greitb. Jobann. 

Groos, Carl. 

Grosbeim, G. Cbr. 

Haibel, Jacob. 

Hanitscb, Georg F. 

Harder, Angustin. 

Haydn, Joseph. 

Hering, Carl G. 

Hiller, Job. Adam. 

Himmel, Fr. Heiur. 

Hisel, (?) 

Hoffmann von Fallersleben. 

Hoffmeister, F. A. 

Hurka. Fr. Franz, 

Keller, Carl. 

Kempt, F. A. 

Kiruberger, Job. Pbil. 

Klein, B. 

Klein, Christ. Ben. 

Kuuig, Karl Gottl. 

Kreipl, J. 

Kretzscbmor, Audr, 

Kreutzer, Conrad. 

Kiicken, Friedr. AVm. 

Kiicken, Heinricb. 

Kublau, Friedricb. 

Kuhn, Gottl. J. 

Kunze, G. 

Liudpaiuter, Peter von. 

Lo trier, A. 

Mendelssohn - Bar t hold i, 

Felix. 
Methfcssel, Albert. 
Moritz, C. T. 
Mozart, "Wolfgang Ama- 

deus. 
Miiller, Peter. 
Miillcr, Wcnzel. 
Niigcli, Hans Georg. 
Natbusius, Slaria. 
Naumann, J. A. 
Pilz, Carl Pbil. Em. 
Pobienz, August. 



Pathko, (?) 
Eegnart, Jacob. 
Peicbardt, Gustav. 
Reicbardt, Job. Friedr, 
Kcicbardt, Luise, 
Reissiger, Carl G. 
Rigbini, V. 
Rollc, Job. Heinr. 
Rust, Fr. Wm. 
Schneider, Friedr. 
Schneider, J. G. W. 
Schneider, Wilhelm. 
Scbnorr, Heinr. Christ. 
Schnyder, von War ten see, 

X. 
Schubart, Cbr. F. D. 
Schubert, Franz. 
Schultz, Christ. 
Scbulz, Job. A. P. 
Seckeudorff, Fr. L. A. von. 
Seidel, Fr. Ludwig. 
Seydler, Ludw. Carl. 
Sievers, J. F. L. 
Silcber, Friedricb. 
Spazier, Carl. 
Spohr, L. 

Steifensandt, Wm. 
Sterkel, Job. F. Xaver. 
Streber, Valentin. 
Tbiimmel, Julius. 
Tiirk, Daniel G. 
Weber, B. A. 
Weber, Carl Maria von. 
Weiss,, Fr. Wm. 
Werner, H. 
Wilhelm, Carl. 
Winter, P. von. 
Witthauer, Job. Geo. 
Wolf, Ernst Wm. 
Wollank, Friedricb. 
Zabu, Christ. Jacob. 
Zcltcr, Carl Friedr. 
Zumsteg, J, R, 



MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 215 

BiBLioGiiAi'HY or German Books. 
''MUSIC schools" axd discussions of method. 

Albrccht, F. A. UeLangen und Lietler zu ciuem mcthodiscbcu Gesangmitcrricht ia 

Schnlo iiud Haus. Four iiarts. 
Earner, A. (a) Methodisclio Anleitnng zur Ertheilung dcs Gesangiiuterriclits uach 

dem Geliore. (&) Gesanglehro fiir die Yolksschiilo. Two x)arts, (a) for teachers, 

(&) for tlie pupils. 
Baumcrt, L. Der Gesaugnnterricht iu der Volksschnle. 
Bell, A. Auleitimg zur Ertlieilurig des Gesangunterriclits in dei- Yolksscliiile, ncbst 

Yertheilung dcs Lelirstoffs. 
Boenicle, G. Der Gcsangnntcrriclit nacli dem Gehore. 
Braun. Die Ziffernmetbodo Leini Untcrricht im Singen. 
Drath, Th. Der Gesanglehrcr und seine Metliode. 

Elinl, J. A. Stufenmiissig geordneto Gesanglehro fiir den Schulgehraiich. 
GeVnausen, J. Abhandhing iiber die ueucsto Gesaugsmctbode. 
Grell, Fr. Gesanglehro fiir Yolks- nnd Biirgerschnleu. 
Hanslil:. Yom Mnsikaliscb-Schonen. 

Hartmann, F. Gesangunterricht fiir Scbuleu. Three parts. 
Holimann, Chr. H. Praktischer Lehrgang fiir deu Gesangunterricht in den Yolks- 

scbulen. Four courses. 
Jeltsch, Max. Der Gesangunterricht in der Yolksschulo. 
Jimmerthal, H. . Gesanglehro und Liederbuch. Four parts. 

Eehr, C. Two vols, (a) Geschichto der Methodik. (Z>) Praxis der Yolksschule. 
Koihe, B. Yademccuni fiir Gesanglehrer. Theoretisebes und Metbodisches. 
Kotlie Win. Theoretiscb-praktiscber Leitfadeu fiir die metbodischo Behandlung des 

Gesangunterrichts. 
Kuhn, E. Gehor- und Stimmiibnngen. 

Kuntze, E. Uobuugsbuch beim Gesangunterricht nach Noten. 
Lange, Bud. Winko fiir Gesanglebi'er in Yolksscbulen. 
Langc, Bud. Lebrplau fiir den Gesangunterricht. 

Lclnnann, J. G. Grundziigc zur mctbodischen Behandlung dcs Gesangunterrichts. 
Linnarz, B. Metbodik des Gesangunterrichts. 
Manss, Aug. Liedei'scbule. Theoretiscb-praktische Auleitung. 
MiUJcr-Brnnau. Tonbildung oder Gesangunterricht? 
Nierendergcr. Waudtafeln fiir den Gesangunterricht. Twelve charts. 
Oshurg, Deutsche Gesanglehro. 

PjUiger, J. G. F. Anleitung zum Gesangunterricht in Scbulen. 
Ban, C. G. Singtafel fiir Yolks-, Real- und Lateinschulen. 
Beichelt, G. Gesanglehrer und Gesangunterricht der Yolksachule. 
Bein, Plckel and Scheller. Theorio und Praxis des Yolksschulunterrichts. 
Beissmann, A. Elementargesanglehre fiir Schule und Haus. 
Bidder, E. Anweisung zum Gesangunterrichto in der Yolksschule. 
Sacher, Hans, Ueber den Gesangunterricht, insbesoudere das Treft'cnlebren. 
Schdubliu, J. J. Gesanglehro fiir Schule nnd Haus. 
Schdnblin, J. J. Dreissig Tabellen fiir den Gesangunterricht. 
Schiitze, Fr. JVm. Pi-aktiscber Lehrgang fiir den Gesangunterricht. 
Sering, Fr. TFm. Der Elementargesang-Uuterricht. Bedeutung und Aufgabe. 
Scriitg, Fr. TVm. Kurzo theoretiscb-praktische Anleitung fiir ratiouellen Gegangun- 

terricbt. 
Sering, Fr. Din. Die Kunst des Gesanges. Yollstiiudigo ^Slctliodik. 
Stieliler. Das Lied als Gefublsausdruck. 
Toss, Heinricli. Praktische Elementargesaugscbule. 
Weber, Joh. B. Anleitung zum rationellen Gesangunterricht. 



216 EDUCATION REPORT, 1895-96. 

TVidniatiii, Bencdilct. Praktisclier Lclirgaug fiir eiueu ratioDellen Gesangunlerricht 

in luelirklassigen Scliiilen. 
Widmann, Bencdilct. Kleiue Gesanglehrc fiir die Hand der Schiilcr. 
Widmann, BcnediJct. VorLereitungskursus fiir den Gesangunterriclit. 
Widmann, Bencdilct. Gebor- und Stimmbildung. 

COLLECTIONS OF SONGS FOR SCHOOLS. 

Anding, J. M. ScLLulliederl)ucli. Five parts. 

Baitke, Gustav. Jugendfreimd. Three parts. 

Baumcrt, L. Deutsclie Yolkslieder fiir Schulgebrauch. 

Bell, A. Liedersammluug fiir die Volksschule. 

Berger, Gustav. Liederscbatz fiir die deutsclie Jugeud. 

Berger, Gustav. Jugendkliiiige. 

Blied, J. Liederbucli fiir Yolksscliuleu. Two parts. 

Boiifficr, Fr. Liederbucli fiir Miidchenscliulen. 

Brdhmig, B. Liederstrauss fiir Tucliterschulen. Five parts. 

Christ, Bernli. Auswahl zweistimmiger Yolkslieder. 

Damm, Gust. Liederbucli fiir Schulen. 

Drath, Theo. Scbulliederbuch. 

Eric, L., and Greef, Wm. Singviigeleiu, Sauimlung von Liedern. 

Eric, L., and Greef, Wm. Liederkranz. Auswabl lieiterer uud ernster Gesiinge. 

Eric, Lud., and Jacoh, Aug. Deutscher Liedergarten fiir Miidclienscliuleu. 

Franlccnberger, H., and Kaiser, J. Liederbuch fiir Schulen. 

Friclce, W, Liederscbatz fiir Scbule und Leben. Tbreo parts. 

Goethe, E. Kleine Gesangscbule fiir Stadt- nud Laudscbulen. Two parts. 

Goct:e, Heinr. Liedersanimlung fiir mebrklassige Scbulen. 

Groffmann, C. Liederscbatz fiir Deutscblands Yolksscbulen. Two parts. 

Hamma, Franz. Liedersammluug fiir den systematischen Gesaugunterricht. Three 

parts. 
Helm, Martin. Liederbuch fiir Mittelscbulen. 
Hentschel, Ernst. Liederbain. Three parts. 
Hcntschel, Ernst. Kinderbarfe. 

Hcring, Carl. Sang and Klang fiir Miidchenscbulen. Two parts. 
Janson, Friedr. Deutsche Scbulgesange fiir Miidcbcn. Four parts. 
Jessen, A. Chr. Liederborn fiir Yolks- uud Biirgerschulen. Two parts. 
Jiitting-Billig, Fr. Grosseres Liederbuch. 
Kern, C. Aug. Liederstrauss. 

Klillen, Peter. Liedersammluug fiir obere Klasseu in Miidchenscbulen. 
Kothe, B. Siingerlust. Schul- und Yolkslieder. 
Krause, Theo. Saug und Klang fiir Miidchenscbulen. 

Krieger, Ferd. Der Gesaugunterricht in Yolks- uud Biirgerschulen. Five parts. 
Kunze, E. Yolksliederbuch fiir Scbule uud Haus. Three parts. 
Lehmann, J. G. Deutscbes Liederbuch. Two iiarts. 
Linnarz and Bosche. Auswahl von Yolksliedern. 
Liichner, A. L. Deutscbes Liederbuch fiir Scbulen. Six parts. 
LiiJIad, I. Liederbuch fiir Scbule und Haus. 
Liitzel, J. Heinr. Liederkranz. Two parts. 

Luz, Geo. Liederkranz fiir Yolks-, Biirger-, Real- und Lateinscliulen. 
Maicr-Eleemann. Saugesbliiten. 

Mettner, Karl. Deutscbes Liederbuch fiir Schulen. Three parts. 
Miillir-Hartung, Braunlich and Gottschalg. Neues vatcrllindiscbes Liederbuch fiir 

Yolksscbulen und hohere Lebranstalten. Four parts. 
MiiUcr, Eichard. Liederbuch fiir Biirgerschulen. 
Pfliiger, J. G. F. Liederbuch fiir Scbule uud Leben. Three parts. 
Schdublin, J. J. Liedor fiir Jung und Alt. Three parts. 



MUSIC IN GERMAN SCHOOLS. 217 

Schneider, F. Liederbucli fiir A^olksscliuleii. Tlirco parts. 

ScTitvalm, Boh. Yolkslieder und. Gesiinge. 

Seegcr, Karl. Dcr Liedcrfreund. Two parts. 

Seeger, Karl. Liederbucli fiir Yolksscliuleu. 

Se'idel, 0. Liedcr fiir die Volksscliule. Three parts. 

Seidel, 0. Volksscliulliederbucli. 

Sering, F. W. Liederbucli fiir drei- und mclirklassige Volksscbulen. Five parts. 

Sering, F. W. Elsass-Lothriugischer Liederkrauz. Three parts. 

Sering, F. 71'. Gesangswerk fiir hiJhere Tiichterschulen. 

Sjpeyer, J. Jugendlieder. Three iiarts. 

Stein, Karl. Volkslieder fiir Kuaben- und Miidcheuschuleu. 

Steinhaitscn, K. JTm. Zweistimmigo Liedcr fiir deu Schulgebrauch. Four parts. 

Stoffregcn, H. A. Deutschcr Liederschatz fiir Schule, Ilaus und Lebeu. Three 
parts. 

Thoma, B., Kittel, TV., and Milncli, J. Gesangunterricht in dcr sechsklassigen Volks- 
scliule. Methodisch geordnete Sammlung. Three parts. 

Vogcl, A., and Jcssen, A. Chr. Liederbuch fiir osterreichische Yolks- und Biirger- 
schuleu. Four jiarts. 

Weier, Joh. B. Gesangbuch fiir die Primarschule des Kautons Beru. Three parts. 

Wcchcr, J. H,, and Krauss, Fr. Liedersammlung fiir die Schule. 

Tfidmann, Benedild. Fromm und frohlich ! Geistliche und weltliche Yolkslieder und 
neuere Gesiinge. Three parts. 

Widmannn, Bencdilt. Lieder fiir Schule und Leben. Four parts. 

Zahn, Joh. Liederbiichlein fiir die deutschen Schulen. Two parts 



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